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18 37. 



BARBARY STATES. 





Fountain near Algiers. 



NEW-YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS. 
18 37. 



HISTORY 

AND 

PRESENT CONDITION 

OP 

THE BARBARY STATES. 



COMPREHENDING A VIEW OF 

THEIR CIVIL INSTITUTIONS, ANTIQUITIES, ARTS, RELIGION, 
LITERATURE, COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, AND 
NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 



BY REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D., 

AUTHOR OF 

** View of Ancient and Modern Egypt," " Palestine, or the Holy Land," 
" Nubia and Abyssinia," &c. 



WITH SEVERAL ENGRAVINGS. 

NEW-YORK : 

PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, 
NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET. 

1 837. 




MAR 2 



PREFACE. 



is volume completes the plan originally formed 
8 publishers for illustrating the History, the 
Antiquities, and the Present Condition of Africa. 

In the first instance, they drew the attention of 
their readers to the progress of Discovery in that 
vast continent ; describing the natural features of its 
several kingdoms, the social state of its people, and 
thereby bringing into one view all that appeared 
valuable in the observations of those travellers, 
whether in ancient or modern times, who have sought 
to explore the remote recesses of its interior. They 
next made it their endeavour to collect, within a nar- 
row compass, all that is known respecting Egypt, 
Nubia, and Abyssinia, — those countries so full of 
interest to the scholar and the antiquary, and which 
are universally acknowledged to have been the cra- 
dle of the arts, so far as the elements of these were 
communicated to the inhabitants of Europe. 

The Work now presented to the Public has for its 
object an historical outline of those remarkable prov- 
inces which stretch along the southern shores of the 
Mediterranean, during the successive periods when 
they were occupied by the Phoenicians, the Romans, 
the Vandals, the Arabs, and the Moors ; as well as 
a delineation of their condition since they acknowl- 
edged the dominion of the Porte. 

A 2 



vi 



PREFACE. 



No one who has read the annals of Carthage can 
be ignorant of the importance once attached to this 
singular country ; in which was first exhibited to the 
eye of European nations the immense political power 
that may be derived from an improved agriculture, an 
active commerce, and the command of the sea. In 
the plains of Tunis, too, were fought those battles 
which confirmed the ascendency of Rome, and laid 
the foundations of that colossal empire, whose ter- 
ritory extended from the Danube to the Atlas Moun- 
tains, and from the German Ocean to the banks of the 
Euphrates. The gigantic conflict between the two 
greatest republics of the ancient world was at length 
determined among the burning sands of Numidia, or 
on those shores which, for many centuries, have 
been strangers to the civilization and arts diffused 
around their camps by these mighty rivals for 
universal sovereignty. 

Nor are the kingdoms of Northern Africa less in- 
teresting in an ecclesiastical point of view. The 
names of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustin, reflect 
honour on the churches of that land ; and their works 
are still esteemed as part of those authentic records 
whence the divine derives his knowledge of the doc- 
trines, the usages, and institutions of primitive Chris- 
tianity. With relation to the same object, the inroad 
of the schismatical Vandals, and the conquest 
effected by the Arabs, present subjects worthy of the 
deepest reflection, inasmuch as they led to the grad- 
ual deterioration of the orthodox faith, till it was en- 
tirely superseded by the imposture of Mohammed. 
On these heads the reader will find some important 
details in the Chapter on the Religion and Literature 
of the Barbary States. 



PREFACE. 



vii 



The writings of recent travellers have thrown a 
fascinating light over some parts of the ancient Cy- 
renaica, — a section of the Tripoline territory, which, 
having enjoyed the benefit of Grecian learning at an 
early period, still displays the remains of architec- 
tural skill and elegance, borrowed from the inhabi- 
tants of Athens and Sparta. The position of the 
several towns composing the celebrated Pentapolis, 
the beauty of the landscape, the fertility of the soil, 
and the magnificence of the principal edifices, have 
been, in the course of a few years, not only illus- 
trated with much talent, but ascertained with a de- 
gree of accuracy that removes all reasonable doubt. 
The conjectures of Bruce are confirmed, or refuted, 
by the aotual delineations of Beechey and Delia 
Cella. 

The modern history of Barbary is chiefly interest- 
ing from the relations which so long subsisted be- 
tween its rulers and the maritime states of Europe, 
who, in order to protect their commerce from vio- 
lence, and their subjects from captivity, found it 
occasionally expedient to enter into treaty with the 
lieutenants of the Ottoman government. The wars 
which, from time to time, were waged against the 
rovers of Tunis, Sallee, and Algiers, from the days 
of the Emperor Charles the Fifth down to the late 
invasion by the French, are full of incident and ad- 
venture ; presenting, in the most vivid colours, the 
triumph of educated man over the rude strength of 
the barbarian, coupled with the inefficacy of all ne- 
gotiation which rested on national faith or honour. 
The records of piracy, which, not many years ago, 
filled the whole of Christendom with terror and in- 
dignation, may now be perused with feelings of com- 



viii 



PREFACE. 



placency, arising from the conviction that the power 
of the marauders has been broken, and their ravages 
finally checked. Algiers, after striking its flag to 
the fleets of Britain, was compelled to obey the 
soldiers of France, — an event that may be said to 
constitute a new era in the policy of the Moots and 
seems to hold forth a prospect, however indistinct, 
of civilization, industry, and the dominion of law 
over brutal force and passion, being again established 
throughout the fine provinces which extend from 
Cape Spartel to the Gulf of Bomba. 

The Chapter on the Commerce of the Barbary 
States indicates, at least, the sources of wealth 
which, under an enlightened rule, might be rendered 
available, not only for the advantage of the natives, 
but also of the trading communities on the opposite 
shores of the Mediterranean. Everywhere, in the 
soil, in the climate, and in the situation of the coun- 
try, are seen scattered, with a liberal hand, the ele- 
ments of prosperity ; and it is manifest that the 
plains which were once esteemed the granary of 
Rome, might again, with the aid of modern science, 
be rendered extremely productive in the luxuries, as 
well as the necessaries, of human life. 

The assiduity of French writers, since the con^ 
quest of Algiers, has afforded the means of becoming 
better acquainted than formerly with the geology of 
Northern Africa, as well as with several other 
branches of Natural History. From the same 
source have been derived materials for the embel- 
lishments introduced into this volume, and also for 
improving the Map, which the reader will find pre- 
fixed. 

Edinburgh, March 16, 1835. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

Ancient History. 

Contrast between the present and ancient Condition of the Bar 
bary States — View of ancient Manners — Remains of former 
Magnificence — Revolutions in that Country at once sudden 
and entire — Countries comprehended in Barbary — Division, 
according to Herodotus — Origin of the term Barbary — Opin- 
ion of Leo xifricanus — Emigrants from Asia and Arabia — Mon- 
uments which denote an Eastern People — Colonies from Tyre 
— Foundation of Carthage— Supposed Extent of her Territory 
— Remark of Polybius — Carthaginians encouraged Agricul- 
ture — Various Tribes subject to Carthage, or in Alliance with 
her — The History of Carthage for a long time includes that 
of all the Barbary States — First Attempt on Sicily and Sar- 
dinia — Ambitious Views of the Carthaginians — Provoke the 
Resentment of Alexander the Great — First Punic War — Car- 
thage besieged — Second Punic War — Character of Hannibal 
— Scipio invades the Carthaginian Territory — Hannibal re- 
called — Is defeated at Zama — Third Punic War — Fall of 
Carthage — History of Jugurtha — Subdued by the Romans — 
Marius and Sylla — Pompey and Csesar — Conclusion Page 17 

CHAPTER II. 

Constitution, Commerce, and Navigation of the Phoenician 
Colonies on the Coast of Barbary. 

Independence of the federated Towns, Utica, Leptis, &c. — 
Predominance of Carthage — Constancy of her Government — 
Its Progress described — Originally a Monarchy, but gradually 
became aristocratical — House of Mago — Rights of the People 
exercised in public Assemblies — And in the Election of Magis- 
trates — Decided in all questions in which the Kings and Sen- 
ate could not agree — Constitution and Power of the Senate — 
The Select Council— The Kings or Suffetes — Distinction be. 
tween the King and a General — Some resemblance to Roman 
Consuls and Hebrew Judges — Wise Administration of Justice 
—No judicial Assemblies of the People — Basis of Power oc- 



10 



CONTENTS. 



cupied by the Senate — Trade and Commerce of Carthage — 
Inherited from the Phoenicians — Her Position favourable — 
Engrossed the Trade of Africa and Southern Europe — Op- 
posed by the Greeks at Marseilles — Her intercourse with 
Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, and the Balearic Isles — The Mines 
of Spain attract her Notice — Carthaginian Dealers penetrate 
into Gaul — Colonies in the Atlantic — The western Coasts of 
Spain — Voyages to Britain and the Tin Islands — Poem of 
Festus Avienus — Trade in Amber — Question whether the 
Carthaginians ever entered the Baltic — Voyage of Hanno 
towards the South — Colonies planted on the western Coast 
of Africa — The Towns built in that Quarter — The Carthagin- 
ians discovered Madeira — The Date at which the Expedi- 
tions of Hanno and Hamilco took place — Proofs that Carthage 
must have attained great Power and Civilization — Her Libra- 
ries — Agriculture — Splendid Villas — Rich Meadows and Gar- 
dens — Her extensive Land trade across the Desert — Her war- 
like Propensities — Causes of her Decline and Fall Page 45 

CHAPTER III. 

Modern History of the Barbary States. 

Time when the Barbary States assumed an independent Exist- 
ence — The Libyans first inhabited Northern Africa — Influence 
of Phoenician Colonies — Ancient and Modern Divisions of the 
Country — Extent of Roman Conquests — Revival of Carthage 
— Rebuilt from its own Ruins — Site and description of it — 
Remains of former Magnificence — Mercenary Conduct of Ro- 
manus, Count of Africa — Sufferings of the Tripolitans — Usur- 
pation of Firmus — Victories of Theodosius — Death of Firmus 
— Insurrection under Gildo — Wisdom and Bravery of Stilicho 
— Death of Gildo — Rebellion of Heraclian — Error of Bonifa- 
cius — He invites the Vandals — Progress of Genseric, their 
General — Death of Bonifacius — Continued Success of the 
Vandals — Fall of Carthage — Severe Sufferings of the Inhabi- 
tants — Policy of Genseric — He creates a Navy — Sacks Rome 
— Prosecutes a Maritime War — Marjorian meditates the Inva- 
sion of Africa — His Fleet is destroyed by Fire — Attempt of Ba- 
silicus — Loss of his Ships — Death of Genseric — Accession of 
Justinian — Usurpation of Gelimer in Africa — Belisarius takes 
the Command there — Victory over Gelimer — He reduces Car- 
thage — Conquest of Africa — Surrender of Gelimer — Decay of 
the Vandal Power — Africa gradually relapses into Barbarism 
— Commerce and Agriculture languish — Arrival of the Sara- 
cens — Conduct of the Prefect Gregory — Valour of Akbah — 
Dissension among the Caliphs — Akbah is slain — Conduct and 
Fate of Zobeir — Foundation of Kairwan — Hassan retakes 



CONTENTS. 



11 



Carthage — The Greek Imperialists defeated, and finally leave 
the Country — The Moors contend for the Sovereignty — Queen 
Cahina — Her Success and Defeat — Union of the Moors and 
Mohammedan Arabs — Revolt of Ibrahim — Dynasty of the Ag- 
labites — Other Dynasties founded by Rostam and Edris — Rise 
of the Fatimites— Of the Zeirites— Emigration of Arabs from 
the Red Sea — The Almohades and Almoravides . Page 64 

CHAPTER IV. 

Religion and Literature of the Barbary States. 

The Religion and Literature vary with the successive Inhab- 
itants — Superstition of the Natives — Human Sacrifices con- 
tinued by the Carthaginians — Worship of Melcarth, Astarte, 
and Baal — No sacred Caste or Priesthood — Religious Rites 
performed by the Chief Magistrates — Introduction of Chris- 
tianity — Accomplished by the Arms of Rome— Different Opin- 
ions as to the Date of Conversion and the Persons by whom 
it was effected — Statements of Salvian and Augustin — Learn- 
ing and Eloquence of the African Clergy, Tertullian, Cyprian, 
Lactantius, and the Bishop of Hippo — Works of these Divines 
—Death of Cyprian and Augustin — The Writings of the Latin 
Fathers chiefly valuable as a Record of Usages, Opinions, and 
Discipline — Church revived under Justinian — Invasion of the 
Moslem— Christian Congregations permitted to exist under 
the Mohammedan Rulers — Conditions of Toleration — Afri- 
cans gradually yield to the Seducements of the New Faith, 
and the Gospel is superseded by the Koran — Barbary States 
the only Country where Christianity has been totally extin- 
guished — Attempt made to restore it by the Patriarch of Alex- 
andria — Five Bishops sent to Kairwan — Public Profession 
of the Gospel cannot be traced after the Twelfth Century — 
A few Christians found at Tunis in 1533 — Learning of the 
Arabs — Great Exertions of Almamoun — He collects Greek 
Authors, and causes them to be translated — He is imitated 
by the Fatimites of Africa — Science cultivated by the Mo- 
hammedans Five Hundred Years — Their chief Studies were 
Mathematics, Astronomy, and Chymistry — Their Progress in 
Chymical Researches — Neglect Literature, properly so called 
— Prospect of Improvement from the Settlement of European 
Colonies in Northern Africa . . . . r . , ♦ . * 93 



12 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Cyrenaica and Pentapolis. 

Modern Acceptation of the Term Barbary — Desert of Barca — 
District of Marmarica — Its desolate State — Remains of an- 
cient Improvement — Derna — Natural Advantages — Habits of 
the People — Want of good Harbours— Ruins — Opinion of Pa- 
cho — Excavations and Grottoes — Cyrene — Details by Herodo- 
tus — War with Egypt — Successes of the Persians — Form of 
Government — Cyrene subject to Egypt — Persians — Saracens 
— Present State of the Cyrenaica — Marsa-Suza — Ruins — Ap- 
ollonia — Monuments of Christianity — Tombs — Theatres — 
Style of Architecture— Amphitheatre— Temples — Stadium — 
Hypogea — Notion of petrified Village — Account by Shaw — 
Remark by Delia Cella— Journey of Captain Smyth— State of 
Ghirza— Fountain of Apollo — Description of it — Examined by 
Capt. Beechey— Plain of Merge — Barca — History of— Doubts 
as to its real Position — Opinion of Delia Cella — Ptolemeta or 
Dolmeita — Fine Situation of the Town— Streets covered with 
Grass and Shrubs — Extent of the City — Ruins — Theatres — 
Magnificent Gateway — Supposed of Egyptian Origin — Hy- 
pothesis of Delia Cella — Disputed by Capt. Beechey — Taucra y 
or ancient Teuchira — Unfavourable as a Seaport — Complete 
Demolition of its Buildings — Ruins of two Christian Church- 
es — Tombs — Variety of Greek Inscriptions — Mode of Burial 
— Bengazi, or Berenice — Miserable Condition of the Place — 
Plague of Flies — Population — Character of Inhabitants — Gar- 
dens of the Hesperides — Glowing Descriptions of them by an- 
cient Writers— Position indicated by Scylax— Labours of Cap- 
tain Beechey — Conclusion Page 114 

CHAPTER VI. 

Tripoli and its immediate Dependances. 

Ancient Limits of the Pachalic — Great Syrtis seldom visited — 
Delia Cella and the Beecheys — Ghimines — Forts and Ruins — 
Tabilba — Remains of a Castle— Curious Arch — Braiga, a 
Seaport, and strongly garrisoned — Thought to be the ancient 
Automata — Sachrin, the southern Point of the Gulf— Shape 
of the Bay — Cato, Lucan, and Sallust — Muktar — Hudia — 
Linoof— Mahiriga — Fortress — Tower of Bengerwad— Suppo- 
sed to be that of Euphrantas — Charax — Medinet Sultan — 
Shuaisha — Hamed Garoosh — Zaffran — Habits of "the Natives 
— Their Dress — The Aspis of Ancient Writers — Giraff— Cape 
Triero — Mesurata — Salt-marshes — Gulf of Zuca — Lebida— 



CONTENTS. 



13 



Ruins — Narrative of Captain Smyth — Tagiura — Fertility- 
Tripoli — Appearance — Tripoli believed to be of Moorish ori- 
gin — Old Tripoli destroyed by the Saracens — Opinion of Leo 
Africanus— Favourable Judgment formed by Mr. Blaquiere — 
Moral Character of the Tripolines — Statement by the Author 
of Tully's Letters — Description of Tripoli by Captain Bee- 
chey — Pacha's Castle — Mosques — Triumphal Arch — Inhabi- 
tants divided into Moors and Arabs — Manner in which the 
Turks spend their time — Peculiar Mode of conducting Con- 
versation — Bedouins — Their Dress and Manners — The Pia- 
nura or Fertile Plain— Visit to the Castle — Magnificence of 
the Apartments — Pacha's principal Wife— Mode of Saluta- 
tion — Refreshments — History of Tripoli— Knights of Malta — 
Rajoot Rais — Admiral Blake — Sir John Narborough — Major 
Eaton — Revolution by Hamet the Great — The Atrocities 
which attended it — Fezzan — Siwah — Augila — Marabouts — 
Scene witnessed by Captain Lyon — Drunkenness — Langua- 
ges spoken at Tripoli Page 153 

CHAPTER VII. 

Tunis and its Dependances. 

Lands included in the Pachalic of Tunis — History resumed — 
Abou Ferez — His Court, Bodyguard, and Council — Invasion 
of Tunis by Louis IX. — Carthage reduced — Sufferings of the 
French — Death of the King — Arrival of the Sicilian Crusa- 
ders — Failure of the Expedition — Rise of the two Barbarossas, 
Home and Hayradin — The former invited to assist the King 
of Algiers— He murders him and seizes the Government — 
The Usurper defeated and slain — Algiers occupied by Hayra- 
din, who courts the protection of the Grand Seignior — Plans 
an attack on Tunis — Succeeds in his Attempt — Excites the 
Resentment of the Emperor Charles V. — The vast Prepara- 
tions in Italy and Spain — Barbarossa prepares for Defence — 
The Goletta is taken — A general Engagement ensues — The 
Moors are defeated and Tunis falls— The Town is sacked 
and plundered — Muley Hassan restored— Conditions — Ex- 
ploits of Barbarossa — Spaniards expelled by Selim II. — Tu- 
nisians elect a Dey — Government settled in a Bey — Rise of 
Hassan Ben Ali — Power absolute — Administration of Jus- 
tice — Description of Tunis — Soil and Climate — Army — Su- 
perstitions — Manners and Customs — Character of the Moors 
— Avarice of the late Bey — Population of the Regency — 
Revenue — Intemperance — Anecdote of Hamooda — Descrip- 
tion of Carthage — Cisterns and Aqueduct — Remains of a 
Temple— Appearance during the Fourth and Fifth Centuries 



14 CONTENTS. 

— Details by Edrisi — Remark by Chateaubriand— Bizerta- 
Utica — Hammam Leif— Sidi Doud — Kalibia — Ghurba — Nabai 
— Keff— Tubersoke — Herkla — Sahaleel — Monasteer — Lemp- 
ta — Agar — Demass — Salecto — WoodJif — Gabes — Jemme — 
Sfaitla — Gilma — Casareene — Feriana .... Page 193 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The Regency of Algiers. 

Origin of the term Algiers — Importance attached to its History 
— Boundaries of the State — Appearance of the Town — Its 
Interior — Population — Fortifications — Narrow Streets — His- 
tory resumed — Charles V. resolves to attack Algiers — His 
Force — Preparations of Hassan Aga — Storm disables the 
Spaniards — Loss of Ships and Men — Sufferings of the Army 
— Scattered at Sea — Fortitude of the Emperor — These Hos- 
tilities had an earlier origin — Policy of Cardinal Ximenes — 
Success of his Measures — Moors revolt, and invite Barbaros- 
sa — Spaniards deprived of Oran — Expedition of Philip V. — 
Oran destroyed by an Earthquake — French attack Algiers 
under Beaulieu — And under Duquesne — The City and Batte- 
ries destroyed — The Dutch, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, and 
Russians, adopt different Measures — English make several 
efforts to reduce the Corsairs — Insults during the reign of 
George II. — Resolutions by Congress of Vienna — Expedition 
of Lord Exmouth — Attack on Algiers — Terms acceded to — 
Captives released — French Government offended — Expedi- 
tion under Bourmont — Account by Rozet — Present state of 
Algiers — Revenue — War between Algiers and Tunis — Bona 
— Tabarca — La Cala — Constantina — Antiquities — Mileu — 
Remains — Bujeya — Province of Titteri — Bleeda and Medea 
— Burgh Hamza — Auzea — Beni Mezzab — Province of Tlem- 
san — Capital — Arbaal — El Herba — Maliana — Aquae Calidae 
Colonia— Oran — Recent History — Inhabitants — Geeza— Ca- 
rastel — Mostagan — Jol, or Julia Caesarea — Tefessad — Sher- 
shell — Vicinity of Algiers — French Government — Attempt at 
Colonization — Difficulties— Favourable Climate and Soil — 
European Powers invited to co-operate — Late Publications 
on the Subject 230 

CHAPTER IX. 

Empire of Morocco. 

Boundaries of Morocco —Extent— Divisions — Fertility — Pro- 
ductions — Not fully cultivated — Metallic Treasures, Iron r 
Copper, Gold, and Silver — Population — History — Aglabites 



CONTENTS. 



15 



— Edrisites — Fatimites — Zuhites — Hamadians — Abn-Has- 
sians — Abdallah-ben-Jasin — Almoravides — Almohades — Me- 
rinites— Oatazi — Shereef Hassan — Various Races of Men — 
Administration of Justice — Rude Government — Oppression— 
Court-dress — Arrogance of the Moors — Their patient Endu- 
rance — Equality of Rank — Mode of eating — Ceremony of Mar- 
riage — Religion — Treatment of Christians and Jews — Reve- 
nue— Melilla — Velez — Tetuan— Ceuta — Tangier — Arzillah — 
El Haratch — Meheduma — Sallee — Rabat — Schella — Maza- 
gan — Mogadore — Agadeer — Morocco — Population — Palace — 
Fez — Edifices — Decayed S tate — Terodant — Mequinez — 
Royal Residence — Manners of Inhabitants . . . Page 276 

CHAPTER X. 

Commerce of the Barbary States. 

Benefits expected from a Trade with Africa — Plan of Bonaparte 
and Talleyrand to raise in it colonial Produce — French have 
always maintained Commercial Relations with Barbary — The 
Fertility of Central Africa — The Congo and Niger — Market 
at Bengazi — Ancient Trade of the Genoese — Exports from 
Tunis — Imports — Commercial Lists of that Pachalic — Trade 
diminished — Bad Policy of the Bey — System of Licenses — 
Coins, Weights, and Measures at Tunis— Trade of Algiers 
carried on by the Corsairs — Imports resemble those of Tunis 
— Manufactures and Exports— Mode of Shipbuilding — Pres- 
ent State of Commerce at Algiers — Trade with France, Eng- 
land, Italy, Spain, and Tunis — Trade of Morocco— Mogadore 
— Total Value of Exports and Imports — Intercourse with 
Negro Nations — Coins, Weights, and Measures — Physical 
Advantages of Northern Africa — Hopes of Improvement 298 

CHAPTER XI. 

Natural History. , 

Additional Knowledge of Africa supplied by the French — Ge- 
ology — Great and Little Atlas — Structure of the former — 
Succeeded by Tertiary Rocks— Supposed Extent of the 
Greater Atlas— -Cyrenean Mountains — Reflections on the Des- 
ert — Relics of organized Bodies — Transition-rocks — Lime- 
stone — Talc-slate — Mineral Species — Secondary Formation — 
Limestone-shales — Marlstones and Sandstone — Imbedded 
Minerals — Extent of the Little Atlas — Metals — Tertiary 
Rocks — Calcareous Sandstone, Clays, Porphyry, Dolerite, 
Greenstone, and Basalt — Blue Marl or London-clay — Or- 
ganic Remains — Volcanic Rocks — Diluvian Formation.— Soil 



16 



CONTENTS. 



of Metijah — Postdiluvian Formation — Uniform Operation 
of General Laws — Zoology— Scorpions and Serpents — 
Bfiska — Effah — Boah — Locusts — Quadrupeds — Horreh — 
Aoudad — Nimmer — Heirie — Camel — Desert-horse — Birds — 
Ostrich— El Rogr— Tibib— El Hage— Graab el Sahara— Ka- 
raburno — Burourou — Botany — List of Plants — Hashisha — 
Euphorbium — Silphium — Medicinal Qualities — Opinions of 
Delia Cella and Beechey — Reflections .... Page 309 



ENGRAVINGS. 



Map of the Barbary States To face the Vignette. 

Vignette — Fountain on the Road to Mount Bou Zaria. 

Berbers Page 65 

Moorish Artisan and Female 89 

Coffee-house and School at Byrmadrais 112 

Rich Moor and Female 175 

Moorish Lady and Fashionable Moor 211 

View of Algiers from the Land 233 

View of a Street in Algiers 238 

Gate and Fountain of Bab El Ouad 254 

View of Oran 265 

Aqueduct of Mustapha Pacha • 270 



HISTORY 

AND 

PRESENT CONDITION 

OF 

THE BARBARY STATES. 



CHAPTER I. 

Ancient History. 

Contrast between the present and ancient Condition of the Bar- 
bary States — View of ancient Manners — Remains of former 
Magnificence — Revolutions in that Country at once sudden 
and entire — Countries comprehended in Barbary — Division^ 
according to Herodotus — Origin of the term Barbary — Opin- 
ion of Leo Africanus — Emigrant s from Asia and Arabia — Mon- 
uments which denote an Eastern People — Colonies from Tyre 
— Foundation of Carthage — Supposed Extent of her Territory 
— Remark of Polybius — Carthaginians encouraged Agricul- 
ture — Various Tribes subject to Carthage, or in Alliance with 
her — The History of Carthage for a long time includes that 
of all the Barbary States — First Attempt on Sicily and Sar- 
dinia — Ambitious Views of the Carthaginians — Provoke the 
Resentment of Alexander the Great — First Punic War — Car- 
thage besieged — Second Punic War — Character of Hannibal 
— Scipio invades the Carthaginian Territory — Hannibal re- 
called — Is defeated at Zaraa — Third Punic War — Fall of 
Carthage — History of Jugurtha — Subdued by the Romans — 
Marius and Sylla — Pompey and Cs&sar — Conclusion. 

In entering upon a description of the Barbary States, the 
mind naturally turns, in the first instance, to a comparison 
of their actual condition, morally and politically considered, 
with the civilization to which they formerly attained under 
more enlightened governors. The contrast thus presented 



18 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



is rendered still more striking by a reference to the literature 
and science of Europe, of which the elements were, in many- 
cases, derived from the northern shores of Africa ; as well 
when the Phoenicians extended their power to the Pillars of 
Hercules, as when the lieutenants of the Caliph exercised 
authority over the mixed tribes who were compelled to ac- 
knowledge their dominion. 

Nowhere, indeed, is the effect of wise institutions more 
clearly distinguished than at the point whence the philosoph- 
ical eye marks the difference which prevails on the opposite 
sides of the Mediterranean. From the mountains of Spain 
the spectator may comprehend, at one glance, the abode of 
nations which, though in geographical position not farther 
distant than a voyage of a few hours, are nevertheless, in 
respect of religion, learning, and all the arts and feelings of 
social life, removed from one another by the lapse of man 
centuries. In passing the narrow channel which separates 
these two quarters of the globe, the traveller finds himse 1r 
carried back to the manners and habits of ages long past, 
and sees, as it were, a revival of scenes which must have 
attracted the notice of the earliest historians of the human 
race. On the one hand, he beholds an order of men who, 
like the patriarchs of Arabia, are still engaged with the occu- 
pations of the pastoral state, living in tents, and sustaining 
themselves on the produce of their flocks. On the other, 
he may see a community devoting their cares to the pursuits 
of traffic, and^like the ancient Ishmaelites, carrying the com- 
modities of foreign lands across their wide deserts ; thereby 
connecting, in the bonds of commercial intercourse, the re- 
motest nations of the Old World. In a third section of 
Northern Africa, his attention will be drawn to numerous 
tribes who, adopting partially the usages of both the other 
classes, refuse to abide by either ; but, like the descendants 
of Esau, with their hands lifted against every man who crosses 
their path, esteem it their highest honour to impose tribute 
and enrich themselves on spoil. 

Nor is the contrast less remarkable, when the present as- 
pect of the country is compared with the magnificence and 
cultivation which adorned it during several ages. In no 
other region of the earth has the flood of time committed 
ravages so extensive and deplorable, obliterating nearly all 
the traces of improvement, and throwing down the noblest 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



19 



works of art. Amid the sand, accordingly, which covers the 
remains of ancient towns, are to be seen the finest specimens 
of architectural skill, mingled with the relics of a taste and 
luxury which distinguished the later years of the Roman em- 
pire. The fields, which once bore the most abundant crops, 
are now either deformed by the encroachments of the Desert, 
or overgrown with useless weeds and poisonous shrubs ; while 
baths, porticoes, bridges, theatres, and triumphal arches, have 
mouldered into ruins, or sunk under the hands of the barba- 
rous inhabitants. 

No people, once civilized, retain so few marks of having 
risen above savage life as the present Moors and Arabs of 
Barbary. All other nations, however depressed with regard 
to power, wealth, and science, continue to exhibit some proofs 
of their former greatness, and to vindicate, at least by their 
recollections and desires, the rank which their ancestors 
enjoyed in ancient times. The Jews, the Egyptians, the 
Greeks, and the Romans, though now little more than the 
nominal representatives of distinguished empires, cherish the 
memory of what they were ; extol the exploits of their fathers, 
and admire their works ; hoping even to restore their fortunes 
and to emulate their fame in a more auspicious age. But 
the rude tribes of Africa are strangers to all such ennobling 
sentiments. They know not that their country was one of 
the first seats of government and commerce, and took the 
lead, at an early period, in all the attainments which exalt 
human nature, and confer the highest blessings on society. 
They forget that Carthage held long suspended between her- 
self and Rome the scales of universal dominion ; that her 
provinces were opulent and enlightened; that she could boast 
of renowned sages and learned fathers of the church ; and 
that some of her towns were on a footing of equality with the 
most celebrated in antiquity. Ignorant, moreover, of the 
history of those monuments which still give an interest to 
their wild shores and dreary plains, they even make haste to 
deface every thing whereon ingenuity has been lavished, and 
to remove every token which might serve as an evidence 
! that men more polished than themselves had occupied their 
cities or ploughed their fields. 

These facts will appear less inexplicable, when it is called 
to mind that the revolutions in Barbary have, for the most 
part, been not only sudden and complete, but that, being 



20 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



brought about by nations that had very little in common with 
those which they subdued, an entire change was introduced 
as often as new masters assumed the government. The 
Saracens, for example, who marched under the banners of 
Mohammed, had no respect for the institutions of the Ro- 
mans, whether conveyed thither from Italy or from the shores 
of the iEgean Sea. On the contrary, those fierce warriors 
felt themselves impelled by religious zeal to root out what- 
ever had been planted by Christians — to demolish the edifices 
in which they had worshipped — to destroy the emblems of 
their faith — and to treat with scorn every usage which could 
be traced to the hated Nazarenes. The barbarians who 
humbled the European portion of the empire, yielded their 
reverence, and even their belief, to the magnificent and im- 
posing ritual of the Church. Their own tenets were so ill 
denned, and rested on principles so extremely vague, that 
they were easily capable of amalgamating • with any other 
system which simply recognised the doctrine of a Divine 
Providence, and the sanctions of a future state, as the re- 
ward of the good and the punishment of the guilty. But the 
disciples of the Koran were not allowed to make terms with 
the professors of any rival creed. An acknowledgment of 
their prophet, as an inspired messenger sent by Heaven, was 
ever held as a condition indispensable to the enjoyment of 
security, and even of those ordinary privileges in life, without 
which man may be said to forfeit all the advantages of asso- 
ciating with his fellow-creatures. Hence the irruption of the 
Arabian host produced, on the face of Upper Africa, effects 
hardly less violent and universal than if a second deluge had 
swept over it. The past could not have been more profound- 
ly forgotten, and the labours of former generations could 
scarcely have more entirely disappeared. 

The countries included under the general description of 
Barbary, of which it is our intention in the present work to 
give an account, may be conveniently understood as extend- 
ing from the Desert of Barca on the east to Cape Nun on 
the west ; a space which comprehends the Cyrenaica, Trip- 
oli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, and embraces more than 
2,000 miles of coast. It is true, that the first of the districts 
now specified is not usually attached to the Barbary States, 
being more closely connected with Egypt, both by its histor- 
ical relations and its natural affinity. But as the celebratetf 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



21 



towns, composing the Pentapolis of ancient authors, were 
not described in our volume on the kingdom of the Pharaohs, 
we have thought it expedient to introduce them here, in order 
that we may fully complete our undertaking, and lay before 
the readers of the Library all that is known respecting the 
great continent of Africa. The breadth of the territory which 
thus falls under our notice varies very much at different 
parts, according to the proximity of the sandy waste by which 
it is bounded on the south ; and this uncertainty is still far- 
ther increased by the occasional movements of the Sahara 
itself, which, so far from being permanently fixed, is found 
from time to time invading the cultivated lands. 

According to Herodotus, the north of Africa is divided 
into three regions, which he distinguishes into inhabited land, 
the wild beast country, and the desert ; an arrangement strictly 
corresponding to the modern classification of Barbary, prop- 
erly so called ; the Blaid el Jerid, or region of dates ; and 
the Sahara. The first section contains Mauritania, Numidia, 
the territory of Carthage, Cyrenaica, and Marmarica ; that 
is, the northern parts of the present kingdoms of Morocco, 
Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. It was not without rea- 
son that the father of history conferred upon this extensive 
tract the epithet of habitable ; for, though at certain parts its 
continuity is broken by the approach of the sands, it is, gen- 
erally speaking, uncommonly productive. By the Romans, 
indeed, it was, next to Egypt, esteemed their granary ; and 
its abundant returns long enabled the Carthaginians to main- 
tain armies able to cope with the conquerors of Europe. 

Beyond this favoured region a chain of mountains runs 
across the continent, beginning at the shores of the Atlantic, 
and reaching to the boundaries of Egypt. The whole line, 
it is true, has not been examined by recent travellers ; but 
the opinions of the ablest geographers favour the conclusion 
that, though it occasionally sinks to the level of the Desert, 
the range may be distinctly traced from the neighbourhood 
of the Nile to the Western Ocean. Its loftiest and broadest 
part, bearing the name of Atlas, occupies the southern prov- 
inces of Morocco and Algiers ; and in this vicinity, where 
water abounds, there are many wild beasts — the ground of 
the distinction attributed to it by Herodotus. The later 
Greek and Roman writers called it Getulia ; and it is cele- 
brated by their po^ts as the native haunt of savage animals. 



22 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 



By the Arabs, however, as "already suggested, it is named the 
Land of Dates, from the vast quantity of that fruit which 
grows there, and which constitutes an article of food and of 
commerce extremely important to the various tribes who fre- 
quent its borders. The whole region comprises the southern 
side of Atlas, together with the territory lying near it, ex- 
tending as far as the Great Desert, between the 26th and 
30th degrees of north latitude. 

This country, whieh is fertile only in those places where 
water is found, loses itself by degrees in the Sahara, the des- 
ert of Herodotus. Like the hills just mentioned, this barren 
tract occupies the entire breadth of Africa, and even stretches 
through Arabia and Persia into the provinces of Northern 
India. The width of the sandy belt is not everywhere the 
same ; the greatest being in the western parts, between Mo- 
rocco and the Negro Country, and the least , between the 
present states of Tripoli and Kassina, where also the oases — 
those fruitful patches of well-watered ground — occur most 
frequently in the path of the caravans. It becomes again 
much broader as it approaches Egypt ; and, finally, forms a 
junction with the wilderness of Nubia, and thence, it is prob- 
able, with the central portion of the African continent.* 

The origin of the term Barbary is lost, as well in the ob- 
scurity of the original language as in the fanciful hypotheses 
which have been framed to illustrate its meaning and appli- 
cation. Leo Africanus has recorded certain opinions enter- 
tained on this subject by those who wrote before his days, 
adding his own reflections, of which it may not be deemed 
severe to remark, that they tend not in the slightest degree 
to remove the darkness wherewith he found the inquiry en- 
veloped. According to his authorities, the word Ber signi- 
fies a desert ; while others, on the contrary, maintain that it 
denotes a rich soil ; the duplication of the term, Berber, con- 
veying the happy discovery that the land along the coast ap- 
peared unusually fertile, more especially to eyes fatigued 
with the bare and monotonous aspect of the wilderness.! 

* Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i., p. 7. Herodotus, 
book ii., c. 32, and book iv., c. 81. 

t Hujus subfusci coloris incolae appellati sunt nomine Barbar, 
a verbo Barbara quod eorum idiomate idem sonat quod Latinis 
murmuro : eo quod Africanus sermo Arabibus non aliter sonet 
quam beluarum vox, quae nullo accentu suas edunt vocifera- 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



23 



Little aid can be derived from the classical authors, who 
took more delight in gratifying their imaginations than in sto- 
ring their minds with knowledge. To them Africa appeared 
much in the same light as India and China did to the writers 
of the middle ages ; and while they crowded it with wonders 
of magnificence and splendour, they introduced into it all the 
monstrous and most terrific productions of nature. A tradition 
had reached the ears of Sallust, the historian, that a mixed 
horde of Asiatics, led by the fabled hero Hercules, after ad* 
vancing to the western shores of Spain and losing their chief, 
sought employment for their arms in Africa ; wherej it was 
supposed, they finally incorporated with the natives, and as- 
sumed a new name. The Persians, it is said, upon landing 
on the desolate shore, inverted their barks and used them for 
dwellings ; supplying, as the annalist suggests* a pattern for 
the Numidian cottages, even as they existed in his own 
days.* 

Procopius has pledged his credit for the truth of a legend 
still more ancient than the one now quoted, and assures his 
readers that, in the time of the war with the Vandals, when 
he accompanied the great Belisarius into Africa in quality of 
secretary, there were yet to be seen, near a fountain at Tan- 
gierj two columns of white stone, whereon were inscribed, in 
the Phoenician tongue, the following words : — " We fly from 
the robber Joshua, the son of Nun." Whatever accuracy 
there may be in this statement, there is no doubt that the 
northern parts of the African continent must have been peo- 
pled by emigrants from Asia. If any confidence can be placed 
in those traditionary records which descend from father to 
son, and constitute the history of all barbarous nations, it 
must be believed that successive multitudes, armed and un- 
armed, sought in the less populous countries which stretch 
out on either side of the Mediterranean a refuge from the tyr- 
anny of Asiatic conquerors. The Moors narrate that their 
origin may be traced to Sabaea,^ district of Arabia, whence 
their ancestors, under their king Ifricki, were expelled by a 
superior force, and reduced to the necessity of seeking a new 

tiones. Alii volant Barbar nomen replicatum esse, eo quod Bar 
lingua Arabica desertum denotet. — Africa? Descrip., lib. prim., 
p. 12. 

* Sallust. Bell. Jugurth.,c. 18.— -Iique alveos navium in versos 
pro tuguriis habuere; 



24 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



home in the remote regions of the West. This inroad, which 
could not be accomplished without violence, drove the older 
inhabitants from the vicinity of the coast into the less fertile 
tracts that border on the Desert. ; where they appear to have 
provided for their defence by forming caves in the mountains, 
as well as by erecting fortresses in strong passes and ravines. 
Even at the present day, there are found in Southern Numidia 
the remains of towns and castles, which present an air of very- 
great antiquity. The Arabs, disdaining the protection of 
walls and the restraint of a stationary life, carried into Africa 
their wonted habits ; preferring the moveable tent to the 
"city which hath foundations," and watching their numerous 
flocks over unlimited pastures, rather than submitting to the 
drudgery of agriculture or of manufactures. The earlier in- 
habitants appear to have been less erratic in their mode of 
life, and, like the Egyptians, with whom, it is not improbable, 
they were connected, fond of excavating dwellings in the 
rocks, and of erecting lofty structures for ornament or safety. 
Hence the ruins, to which allusion has just been made, in 
the interior of Morocco, and which must owe their origin to 
a people different from the Sabaeans, who are supposed to 
have expelled them from their seats.* 

Whoever were the original possessors of Africa, it is con- 
firmed by the general voice of history that the Phoenicians, 
about 900 years before the Christian era, founded a variety 
of colonies along its shores. The narrow territory on the 
Asiatic coast originally occupied by this enterprising people, 
who had already carried their trade to all parts of the known 
world, soon suggested the expediency of removing the super- 
abundant population to less crowded countries. Political 
broils on many occasions produced the same effect ; sending 
the disaffected from the parent state to seek an asylum in re- 
mote regions, where their opinions could not be so strictly 
watched, and where their impatient spirits would be freed 
from the control of an imperious master. But other motives, 
unconnected either with commerce or civil liberty, might also 
operate in withdrawing the inhabitants from the Phoenician 
monarchy. Carthage, the most powerful of their settle- 
ments, according to a tradition, the truth of which there is 

* Procop. de Bello Vandal., lib. ii., p. 37. — Morgan's Complete 
History of Algiers, p. 9. 



ancient History. 



25 



ho reason to question, owed its origin to the crime of the 
King of Tyre, who, urged by avarice or ambition, murdered 
his brother-in-law, the priest of Melcarth, their national god. 
Many of the citizens, offended and alarmed by this atrocity, 
resolved to leave their native land ; and placing themselves 
under Elissa, the widow of the murdered prince, they put 
to sea, and directed their course towards Africa. They dis- 
embarked in the bay in which Tuneta and Utica were already 
built ; and fixing on a narrow promontory which runs out into 
the sea, they agreed to pay for it a price, or perhaps an an- 
nual tribute, to the Libyans, who claimed the property of the 
soil. Here they erected a place of defence, to which they 
gave the name of Betzura, the fort or stronghold, but which 
the Greeks, according to their usual practice, changed into 
Byrsa, a term referrible to their own tongue ; and as this 
word, so interpreted, denotes the skin of a bullock, they in- 
vented the popular tale, describing how the Tyrians imposed 
upon the unsuspecting savages in the bargain for their first 
possession. Appian gravely remarks, that the Africans 
laughed at the folly of Dido, who begged only for so small a 
quantity of land as she could cover with the hide of an ox, 
but much admired the subtlety of her contrivance in cutting 
it into thongs.* 

Virgil, using the privilege of a poet, has raised upon the 
facts now stated a beautiful fiction, which, like the Paradise 
Lost of the great Milton, conveys a commentary so striking 
as to supersede, in ardent minds, all recollection of the more 
scanty record which it was meant to illustrate. Regardless 
of dates, he connects the voyage of iEneas, after the fall of 

* Appian in Lybicis, 

The word Betzura, Bitzra, or Bozrah, is of Hebrew etymolo- 
gy, and signifies a fort or castle. It is the name of the Idumean 
capital, the chief town in the country of Edom. — Morgan, p. 10. 

The legend of the ox -hide seems to have gone round the world. 
Hussun Subah, the chief of the Assassins, is said to have acqui- 
red in the same maimer the hill-fort of Allahamowt. The Per- 
sians maintain that the British got Calcutta in the same way. 
An English tradition avers that it was by a similar trick Hen- 
gist and Horsa got a settlement in the Isle of Thanet ; and it is 
somewhere stated, that this was the mode by which one of our 
colonies in America obtained their land of the Indians. — Foreign 
Quarterly Review, No. xxvii., p. 213, 



26 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Troy, with the expedition of the Tyrian princess to the coast 
of Libya, and thereby interests his reader in the early fates 
of those two proud commonwealths, whose mutual strife so 
long agitated the shores of the Mediterranean, and died its 
waves with blood. The accuracy with which the bay of Car- 
thage is described may justify a quotation, which, though not 
comparable to the splendid original, will communicate at least 
a topographical outline of the scene : — 

" Within a long recess there lies a bay : 
An island shades it from the rolling sea, 
And forms a port secure for ships to ride. 
Broke by the jutting land on either side, 
In double streams the briny waters glide 
Betwixt two rows of rocks : a sylvan scene 
Appears above, and groves for ever green : 
A grot is formed beneath, with mossy seats, 
To rest the Nereids, and exclude the heats : 
Down through the crannies of the living walls, 
The crystal streams descend in murm'ring falls : 
No halsers need to bind the vessels here, 
Nor bearded anchors ; for no storms they fear."* 

It has been remarked, that Carthage was from the begin- 
ning an independent state, after the model of the trading 
towns which were planted along the Phoenician coast. Tyre 
and her colony, without claiming dominion or acknowledging 
subjection, observed to each other that mutual regard which, 
in those early times, was expected between communities 
sprung from the same root. The former, as Herodotus ob- 
serves, constantly refused to Cambyses the use of her fleet 
whenever he wished to attack Carthage ; and the latter 
granted a place of refuge to the inhabitants of Tyre when 
that city was besieged by Alexander the Great. She like- 
wise continued a long time to her neighbours the pacific pol- 
icy which her original condition rendered expedient. Built 
on the margin of an extensive continent, peopled by fierce 
and lawless tribes, she endeavoured to maintain a good un- 
derstanding with the original nations that occupied the ad- 
joining territory ; and it is said that the rent which she con- 
sented to pay to the lords of the soil was continued till the 

* Dryden's translation of the ^Eneid, book i., line "228, &c. 
" Est in secessu longo locus ; insula portum 
Efficit objectu laterum," &c. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



27 



days of Darius Hystaspes. There are, no doubt, in the ear- 
liest history of her citizens, unquestionable proofs that she 
departed from this amicable policy as soon as she found her- 
self sufficiently strong to dispute the pretensions of the Liby- 
an princes, and even had recourse to arms, in order to vindi- 
cate her independence, or to extend her borders. Opposed 
to uncivilized hordes, the Carthaginian generals usually found 
their efforts crowned with success ; though it is admitted 
that, by their conquests, they only obtained subjects who em- 
braced every oportunity to throw off their yoke. 

No records are left which might enable the historian at 
this distant period to determine the extent to which they car- 
ried their triumphs over the natives, or what were the con- 
ditions proposed to the vanquished as the vassals of this ri- 
sing republic. Those who imagine that they subdued all 
Barbary, or indeed any very considerable part of it, are 
chargeable with a great mistake ; though some writers have 
gone so far as to assert that the whole of Northern Africa 
submitted to their sway, and that the Mauritanian princes 
consented to receive their diadems from the senate of Car- 
thage. The Latin authors, however, do not warrant the con- 
clusion that they were at any time masters of more land than 
that which constituted the province usually associated with 
their name, together with the principal harbours between the 
eastern confines of Tripoli and the shores of the Atlantic. 
There is besides good reason to infer, that in ordinary cir- 
cumstances their authority did not extend much beyond the 
walls of their seaport towns, especially of those which, more 
with the view of pursuing commerce than of enlarging their 
dominions, or of establishing political power, they had been 
! permitted to erect within the boundaries of Numidia.* 

The writings of Polybius afford the most authentic infor- 
mation that can now be obtained respecting the territorial 
possessions of Carthage at the time when she first began to 
attract the attention of Europe. Speaking of the Africans 
who fought in her armies, he always makes a distinction be- 
tween her proper subjects and the free people who served for 
pay. The former he universally calls Libyans, never apply- 
ing to them any more particular or characteristic appellation ; 

* Heeren's Reflections on the Politics, Intercourse, and 
Trade of the Ancient Nations of Africa, p. 53, &c. 



28 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



while on the mercenaries he confers the epithet of Nomades 
or Numidians — a title which suited a great variety of tribes 
who followed the same wandering mode of life, inherited, it 
is probable, from their Arabian ancestors. These roving 
clans acknowledged no master — thinking that they humbled 
themselves sufficiently when they condescended to use their 
arms for a stated recompense, under the banner of their al- 
lies. The others, who practised husbandry, having settled 
abodes and a fixed property, consented to purchase protection 
by surrendering their precarious freedom, as well as by agree- 
ing to pay an annual tax levied upon the produce of their 
lands. It is accordingly observed by the historian just ci- 
ted, that the tribute imposed upon the Libyans was for the 
most part paid in grain ; and, as has been already stated, it 
was principally with the produce of their industry that the 
Carthaginians were enabled to maintain those numerous ar- 
mies with which they made their conquests in foreign coun- 
tries, 

It would appear that these Libyans were indebted to the 
Tyrian colonists for the important knowledge of agriculture, 
which in all ages has proved the main source of civilization 
and social improvement. In the time of Herodotus, the 
most flourishing era of the Carthaginian state, no people 
who cultivated land was to be found beyond the limits of 
their territory ; all the native tribes between Egypt and the 
Lesser Syrtis being still in the more primitive condition of 
shepherds, removing from place to place over the wide sur- 
face of the Desert. But immediately to the westward, he 
remarks, " we find nations who till the ground." Of these 
he specifies three — the Maxyes, the Zaucees, and the Zy- 
gantes — all of whom appear to have been very recently re- 
claimed from the rudest habits of savage life, as they still 
continued to cut their hair in the most fantastic manner, and 
to paint their bodies with vermilion. The Maxyes, to whom 
these remarks principally apply, pretended that they were 
sprung from the Trojans. Their country, we are farther 
told, and indeed all the western parts of Libya, are much 
more woody and infested with wild beasts than that where 
the Nomades reside ; for the abode of these latter, in pro- 
portion as it stretches to the eastward, becomes more low 
and sandy. From hence, continues Herodotus, towards the 
west, where those dwell who plough the land, the region is " 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



29 



mountainous, full of trees, and abounding with wild beasts.. 
Here are found serpents of an enormous size, lions, ele- 
phants, bears, asps, and asses with horns.* 

This author, who did not travel in the western districts of 
Africa, must have received the materials of that part of his 
history which has now been quoted from native writers, to 
whose authority, indeed, he occasionally refers. There can 
be no doubt, however, that there were, in the vicinity of the 
Atlas range, many tribes whose names had not reached him, 
and who, from time to time, appear in the muster-roll of the 
Carthaginian army. Some notion of their numbers may be 
formed from the fact mentioned by Polybius, that, in the un- 
fortunate war which the republic waged with her mercenary 
troops, after the termination of her first conflict with Rome, 
no fewer than 70,000 of them were in the field. f 

To prevent such insurrections, which threatened the sta- 
bility of their power, the rulers of the commonwealth en- 
couraged the settlement of small colonies of citizens among 
the agricultural nations on their southern frontier. Adopting 
in this respect the policy of their European rivals, they en- 
deavoured to gain the support of their neighbours, by extend- 
ing to them the benefit of their institutions and the honour 
of their kindred. This expedient gave rise to a distinction 
in the African race, which is marked in history as the Liby- 
Phoenician — a class who differed from the original inhabi- 
tants of the country, of which they are said to have occu- 
pied the richest and most fruitful parts. This circumstance 
has not escaped the notice of Aristotle, who describes it as 
the surest method for retaining the good-will of the people ; 

. as it prevented the too great increase of the lower orders in 
the capital, and, by a proper distribution of lands, placed the 
poorer citizens in better circumstances. In this way, says 

; he, Carthage preserved the love of her subjects. She con- 
tinually sends out colonies of the townsmen into the districts 
around her, and thereby makes them men of property ; the 
best proof of a mild and intelligent government, who assist 
the poor by inuring them to labour. t 

During several centuries, the history of Carthage compre- 
hended that of the whole of Northern Africa, the scanty r e- 

* Herodot, Melpomene, c. 186-193. 
f Polyb., lib. i., c. 6. 
% Arist. Poiit., lib. ii, c. 11. 
C 2 



30 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



mains of which can now only be gleaned from the volumes 
of the Greek and Latin authors. It is much to be re- 
gretted that all the works of native writers have perished ; 
having fallen a prey to various accidents, as well perhaps as 
to the neglect of their haughty conquerors, wholiad no de- 
sire that the gallant efforts of a falling state should be re- 
corded by any less partial pen than their own. In the days 
of Sallust, several records were still in existence, from which 
he drew some of the facts which he has incorporated in his 
Life of Jugurtha ; but the ruin of the noble family to whom 
they belonged gave occasion to their loss, which has since 
proved irretrievable. "We learn, however, from the annals 
of Josephus, as well as from a few incidental notices in the 
Sacred Scriptures, that, about 600 years before the Christian 
era, the Carthaginians had attained to such a degree of power 
as to brave the resentment of the King of Babylon. This 
monarch, as has been already mentioned, laid siege to Tyre, 
which, after thirteen years' labour, he reduced to submission ; 
but he did not accomplish his object without encountering 
the arms of the African colonists, who sent both sea and 
land forces to assist their mother-country.* 

After the lapse of half a century, the people of Carthage, 
who, like the nation whence they sprang, knew the value of 
commerce, endeavoured to establish their authority in the 
islands of the Mediterranean. Their first attempts on Sicily 
and Sardinia were attended with so little success, that a dis- 
turbance was excited between those who planned the war 
and the leaders who were appointed to conduct it. But the 
object appeared, in the eyes of the senate, to possess so 
much importance, that new efforts were made, and larger 
armies were raised, in order to bring it to a favourable issue. 
It is related by Diodorus Siculus, that, in the year of Rome 
280, Amilcar, at the head of 300,000 men, invaded Sicily, 

* Joseph. Cont. Apion., lib. i. Ezekiel, chapters xxvi, xxvii., 
xxviii., xxix. The details given by the prophet in the 27th chap- 
ter throw more light on the trade of Tyre than can now be ob- 
tained from any other author. Sallust.(Jugurth., c. 17) writes 
as follows : — <k Sed qui mortales initio Africam habuerint, 
quique postea accessennt, aut quomodo inter se permixti sint, 
tamen uti ex libris Punicis, qui Regis Hiempsalis dicebantur 
interpretatum nobis est ; utique rem se6e habere cultores ejus 
terra patent, quam paucissimis dicam." 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



31 



carrying with him 2,000 ships of war, and a greater number 
of transports. These immense preparations, however, did 
not secure a more fortunate result. Losses at sea were 
succeeded by more serious disasters on shore ; and Gelo, the 
sovereign of the island, adding stratagem to force, overcame 
the Carthaginian commander, and dispersed his mighty host. 
But fifty years had not passed when a similar expedition was 
fitted out under Hamilco, who, though his operations in the 
field of battle were attended with greater prosperity, did not 
in the end accomplish more for the commonwealth whose 
sword he drew. Dionysius, who was obliged to surrender 
his capital to the invaders, soon saw his cause avenged by 
the ravages of a pestilence, which cut off their general, with 
a large proportion of his followers. 

These reverses did not dishearten the rulers of Carthage, 
who, in the meanwhile, were gradually extending their in- 
fluence along the shores of Africa, and on the opposite coast 
of Spain. Their commerce, too, had already become so 
flourishing as to afford the means of enlisting, not only the 
warlike tribes of their own deserts, but also Spaniards, 
Gauls, Ligurians, Sardinians, and Corsicans. With these 
forces, they in process of time found themselves masters of 
most of the Mediterranean islands, and at length attracted 
the notice of the Romans, whose dominion began to be felt 
at the extreme parts of Italy. If we yield to the authority 
of Polybius, we must admit that the consular government, a 
hundred years earlier, had solicited the friendship of the 
Carthaginians ; but, whatever may be thought of his state- 
ment, it seems perfectly clear that, about three centuries 
and a half before the reign of Augustus, a treaty was formed 
between the two republics. 

This was, indeed, the age of freedom and vigour to both, 
though it cannot be averred that the generosity of either 
kept pace with their advancement in national strength and 
public liberty. It has been justly remarked, that those com- 
munities which are the most free are also the most subject 
to violent passions and hasty resolves ; and we find, accord- 
ingly, that the Carthaginians were not slow to employ their 
arms wherever they imagined they had an injury to punish 
or an advantage to gain. For example, they had already 
enslaved the people of Boetica, a Spanish province, whose 
privileges were not saved by their courage ; and they had 



32 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



formed an alliance with Xerxes, and lost a battle against 
Gelo, the same day that the Lacedaemonians fell at Ther- 
mopylae. They had tried the fortune of war, too, with 
Agathocles in Africa, and Pyrrhus in Sicily, before they 
came to blows with their more formidable antagonists on the 
banks of the Tiber. 

No other event of great importance occurred prior to the 
first Punic war, if we except the attempt made to relieve 
Tyre when about to be finally overthrown by Alexander the 
Macedonian. That ambitious prince, irritated by the inter- 
ference of a maritime power whose territory he had not yet 
menaced, resolved to inflict on them a signal chastisement ; 
but his thoughts being diverted to other objects, he allowed 
them to enjoy an exemption from the fate which he had pre- 
pared for their kinsmen in the East. It was reserved for 
the Romans to impose a check upon the growing influence 
and prosperity of these Tyrian colonists. 

The ostensible cause of quarrel was an armed interposi- 
tion, on the part of the Carthaginians, in behalf of Hiero, 
king of Syracuse, against the Mamertines, who were allies 
of Rome. It belongs not to our undertaking to describe the 
battles by sea and land, the sieges and negotiations, which 
filled up the long space of twenty-four years. Suffice it to 
mention, that Regulus, who commanded the Romans, hav- 
ing reduced Tunis, appeared before the gates of the capital, 
and summoned it to surrender. The citizens, alarmed at the 
rapid progress of the enemy, solicited peace on equitable 
terms; but the victor, eager to accomplish the entire con- 
quest of their country, insisted on such conditions as deter- 
mined them to continue the war. At this crisis of their 
affairs, relief was brought to them by a Lacedaemonian cap- 
tain, named Xantippus, who engaged the conquerors under 
the walls of Tunis, destroyed their legions, and took the 
proconsul prisoner. Regulus was conducted as a captive 
into the city which he had hoped to enter in triumph, and 
is said to have been exposed to much indignity as well as to 
great bodily suffering. But no degree of torture or reproach 
could overcome his patriotism ; for, upon consenting to ac- 
company the Carthaginian ambassadors to Rome, he ex- 
horted the senate to refuse peace, and even to prosecute 
hostilities with increased vigour. His counsel was adopted, 
though at the expense of his life, and finally enabled his 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



33 



countrymen to conclude a more advantageous treaty with 
their humbled foes. 

The interval of peace with her European rivals was not 
altogether a period of tranquillity to Carthage. The Nu- 
midians, taking advantage of her weakness, endeavoured to 
limit her pretensions in Africa, and to recover the independ- 
ence which they had gradually forfeited during the growing 
ascendency of her power. She soon found it necessary, 
moreover, to renew the struggle in Sicily, and to engage in 
a war with a sovereign of that island, which, Livy informs 
us, lasted five years. The Romans, who had long relin- 
quished the moderation which guided their proceedings in 
the infancy of their commonwealth, perceived that an oppor- 
tunity was thereby presented to them for obtaining posses- 
sion of Sardinia — an acquisition which appeared in their 
eyes so much the more valuable, that the people with whom 
they now found themselves doomed to contend for empire 
still retained several important settlements in the adjoining 
seas. Under some frivolous pretext, accordingly, they in- 
vaded the Carthaginian colony, and could boast that they 
wrested it from its legitimate owners during the subsistence 
of a regular treaty. The injured party, however, could not, 
at that moment, have recourse to the usual means of redress. 
They even condescended to purchase the forbearance of 
their insolent neighbours, and to remit money to Rome in 
name of tribute or compensation. But, pursuing a policy 
which sometimes confounded the less subtle genius of their 
opponents, they sought new sources of wealth in Spain, the 
mines of which filled their treasury with the precious metals, 
and enabled them to call into the field very numerous 
armies, and cover the sea with their fleets. Amilcar was 
intrusted with this important enterprise, which was after- 
ward so ably conducted by his renowned son Hannibal ; who, 
by taking Saguntum, gave occasion to the second Punic war. 

This celebrated leader has been esteemed by many able 
judges the greatest general of antiquity ; and, assuredly, if he 
does not win more affection than any other, he excites higher 
admiration. He possessed neither the heroism of Alexander 
nor the universal genius of Caesar ; but, as a military man, 
he surpassed them both. In ordinary cases, it is the love 
of country or of glory which conducts commanders to great 
achievements : Hannibal alone was stimulated by hatred and 



34 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



the desire of revenge. Inflamed with this acrimonious 
spirit, he set out from the extremity of Spain with an army- 
composed of a great variety of nations ; passed the Pyrenees ; 
marched through Gaul ; and arrived at the foot of the Alps. 
These trackless mountains, defended by fierce barbarians, 
were in vain opposed to his progress. He crossed their icy 
summits and perilous ravines, presented himself in Italy as 
if he had descended from the clouds, and annihilated the first 
consular army on the banks of the Ticinus. Following up 
his victory, he gained another triumph at Trebia, a third at 
Thrasymene, and in the fourth, which he accomplished at 
Cannse, he threatened the existence of Rome itself. During 
sixteen years he prosecuted the war, unaided, in the heart 
of the enemy's country, driving the greatest generals from 
the field, and inspiring the legions with a degree of fear or 
caution which they had not known since the invasion of 
Pyrrhus. 

To withdraw this conqueror from the Roman provinces, it 
was resolved to send an army into Africa. Scipio, whose 
reputation for urbanity, moderation, and self-restraint, has 
reached our own times, was appointed to the command of the 
expedition, with the view of realizing a plan which had ori- 
ginated with himself as the most likely means for subduing 
Hannibal. The landing was effected without any loss ; for 
consternation had pervaded all the coast, and covered the 
roads with fugitives, who fled from the towns without know- 
ing where to seek an asylum. The same alarm had ex- 
tended to Carthage itself ; the citizens ran to arms ; the 
gates were shut ; and the usual preparations were made to 
repel an assault or to withstand a siege. But Scipio was not 
yet in a condition to attack the capital. Having sent his 
fleet towards Utica, he himself proceeded by land to the same 
point, where he was joined by Masinissa, the king of Numi- 
dia, with a large body of cavalry. This chief, formerly the 
ally of the Carthaginians, had made war against the Romans 
in Spain ; and having, by a succession of singular events, re- 
peatedly lost and recovered his dominions, he had once more 
fallen a victim to certain intrigues, and been deprived of his 
crown. Syphax, prince of the Getulians, who had married 
Sophonisba, the daughter of Asdrubal, was put in pos- 
session of his lands — an injustice which alienated him so 
much from the ruling government, that he declared himself 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



ready to co-operate with the invaders against those tyrants 
of Africa.* 

After some battles which terminated in his favour, Scipio 
invested Utica with the resolution to take it ; though Asdru- 
bal and Syphax were encamped in the vicinity. As the tents 
of the latter were formed of mats and reeds, after the Nu- 
midian manner, the Romans set them on fire, and thereby 
destroyed the lives of 40,000 men. But the Carthaginians, 
so far from yielding to misfortune, saw in this event only a 
more urgent reason for increasing their levies and encoura- 
ging the fidelity of their confederates ; though they had the 
mortification to discover, on most occasions, that their raw 
troops, and the undisciplined valour of the Getulians, could 
not maintain their ground against the steady courage of the 
legions. Syphax, being united to a daughter of Carthage, 
would not .desert the cause of that republic, convinced as he 
was that its fall would crush all his hopes, and perhaps bury 
his sovereignty in -its ruins ; and accordingly, though Scipio 
had repeatedly dispersed the armies opposed to him, and even 
made himself master of Tunis, the barbarian prince resolved 
| once more to face the victors, and, if possible, save the cap- 
ital from destruction, He entered into the combat with a 
bravery worthy of a better fate ; and, when deserted by his' 
soldiers in the heat of the battle, he rushed alone upon the 
Roman squadrons, hoping that h*s men, ashamed of having 
abandoned their king, would return and die with him. But 
i in this expectation he was grievously disappointed ; the cow- 
ards continued their flight ; and, his horse being killed, he 
, fell alive into the hands of his mortal enemy' Masinissa.f 

A tale of romance, arTectingly told by Livy, occupies the 
ji short period which precedes the return of Hannibal to de- 
i fend his native country. Sophonisba, whom the fortune of 
I war soon afterward threw into the same hands with her hus- 
| band, was induced or compelled to become the wife of Masi- 
1 nissa ; who, upon discovering that the virtuous and exemplary 
Scipio was displeased with this union, from the fear that her 
influence would draw him to the side of the enemy, sent her 
: a cup of poison, in order that she might free herself from the 
apprehension of a still greater disgrace. t 

* Livius, lib. xxi., c. 1-54. f Ibid., lib. xxx., c. 11. 

t Livius, lib. xxx., c. 12. The narrative begins at the 3d and 
continues to the end of the 12th chapter. 

I 



36 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Finding their affairs fast becoming desperate, the magis- 
trates of Carthage sent orders to their great general to aban- 
don Italy and hasten to their relief. Upon receiving this 
message, he is said to have shed tears of rage, to have re- 
proached the imbecility of his government, and to have bit- 
terly condemned himself for not marching to Rome after the 
battle of Cannae. Never, it was remarked, did a man, quit- 
ting the land of his birth to go into exile, experience more 
profound grief than Hannibal endured when he left a foreign 
shore to return home. He had sailed from Africa when a 
boy ; had been thirty-six years away ; and was about to find 
strangers among the nearest relatives of his family. At length 
he disembarked on the shore of his fathers, at the head of 
the veterans who had followed him in Spain, Gaul, and Italy ; 
who could show more insignia of honour, taken from pretors, 
generals, and consuls, than were carried before all the dig- 
nitaries of Rome : and in the citv, to the protection of which 
he was now advancing, the temples, crowded with the spoils 
of her mighty enemy, were perhaps the only places he could 
recognise amid the scenes of his youth.* 

But the fortune of Hannibal did not accompany him into 
Africa. The battle of Zama decided the fate of Carthage 
and of the most renowned of her sons ; putting an end, at 
the same time, to the second Punic svar. The vanquished 
cued for peace and obtained it, but on such terms as announced 
their approaching humiliation ; while their illustrious gen- 
eral, not venturing to rely on the generosity of an irritated 
and fickle populace, retired to Asia Minor, where he spent 
the remainder of his days in vain attempts to form a coalition 
against the Romans. Nor did he find the hatred of that 
people more relenting than his own. On the contrary, 
the emissaries of the senate pursued him from one court to an- 
other, till he was on the point of being delivered up into their 
hands, when, according to the custom of his age and nation, 
he brought his life to a close by swallowing poison. 

The events now recorded took place about 200 years be- 
fore our era, according to the more common calculation. 
Half a century passed without any open rupture between the 
two republics ; and the wiser statesmen at Rome had begun 

* Chateaubriand's Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and 
Barbary, vol. n\, p. 259, second edition, London, 1812, 



I 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



37 



to perceive an advantage in having their power balanced by 
an active rival, whose ambition would never permit the vigi- 
lance of their government to sleep, nor their citizens to sink 
into a supine security, the parent of luxury and weakness. 
But the elder Cato, with a republican severity which made 
little allowance for the rights of other states, represented the 
destruction of Carthage as essential to the permanence and 
greatness of the Roman power : and his inveterate hatred at 
length proved triumphant. War was accordingly declared, 
on grounds which had in them more of personal enmity than 
of public wisdom ; and the last struggle with the people of 
Dido, the noblest colony of Tyre, was forthwith begun. 

The success which attended the soldiers of Italy on this 
occasion, indicated not so much their own advancement in 
the military art, as the failure of energy and national strength 
on the side of their opponents. The Carthaginians were 
divided by factions and paralyzed by domestic broils ; their 
allies became faithless, their fleets were not properly equipped, 
and their land-forces reposed no confidence in their leaders : 
nor was it until they discovered that the most consummate 
perfidy was practised against them, that they would consent 
to act with unanimity for the preservation of their honour, 
property, and life. The consuls Marcius and Manilius, who 
appeared under their walls, were vigorously repulsed ; and 
the genius of Hannibal seemed to revive in the besieged city. 
The women are described as having cut off their hair and 
twisted it into ropes for the military engines — a degree of 
zeal which was rewarded with the postponement of their over- 
throw for several months. Emilianus Scipio, the second 
Africanus, served at that time in the Roman army as a trib- 
une ; and as Masinissa was still alive, he is feigned by 
Cicero to have invited the youthful hero to his court, when 
that scene is supposed to have occurred which is so beauti- 
fully unfolded by the great orator in his " Scipio's Dream." 

At a somewhat later period, this rising soldier, appointed 
to the consulship through the favour of the people, received 
orders to continue the siege of Carthage. He began by 
surprising the lower town, usually called Magara, and then 
attempted to block up the outer port by means of a mole ; 
but the garrison opened another entrance to the harbour, and 
appeared at sea, to the great amazement of the enemy. It 
is asserted that, had not confusion pervaded the councils of 



38 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



the city, they might on this occasion have burnt the Roman 
fleet, and reduced the assailants to the greatest distress. 

Asdrubal, who conducted the defence, at the head of 
30,000 mercenaries, was a man of a severe temper, and 
treated the citizens with unnecessary harshness. Submit- 
ting, however, to an authority which it would have been haz- 
ardous to oppose, they continued their efforts throughout the 
winter, and prepared for the more formidable attack that 
awaited them in the spring. The enemy, as it was appre- 
hended, renewed his operations against the harbour, being 
aware that, as long as the Carthaginians could find access to 
the ocean, his utmost endeavours would be defeated. Having 
made himself master of the inner port, he pushed forward 
into the great square, and thence to the citadel, into which a 
large body of the troops had retreated. Resistance, though 
now unavailing, was continued seven days, when terms were 
solicited from the conqueror, who freely allowed all to depart 
except the deserters who had passed from his standard to 
that of the enemy. These last, amounting to 900, shut them- 
selves up in the temple of Esculapius ; and, choosing to 
perish by their own hands rather than submit to the punish- 
ment of traitors, they set fire to the building, and died amid 
the flames. 

Scipio is reported to have shed tears for the fate of the 
city which he himself had destroyed, and upon the ruin of 
which he knew that his glory as a warrior was to be founded. 
Looking upon a capital, once so flourishing, sacked and burnt 
by furkms soldiers, he reflected on the revolutions of em- 
pires, and recited some verses from Homer in allusion to the 
future destinies of Rome, to which they were so easily 
adapted : — 

" Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates : 
(How my heart trembles while my tongue relates !) 
The day when thou, imperial Troy, must bend, 
And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end."* 

Corinth was demolished in the same year as Carthage ; 

* Iliad, lib. vi., v. 447. 

E2 psv yap r<5<5e Zitia Kara <ppha koli Kara dv^hv 
"Roaerai rjpap, or av rror* oAoAj; l\ic$ lprj 9 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



39 



and we are told that a youth of the former city repeated a 
similar passage from the Greek poet when he beheld his na- 
tive town reduced to ashes — a fine tribute to the genius of 
the immortal bard, whose sentiments were thus ingrafted 
upon the serious thoughts of all contemplative spirits through- 
out the civilized world. 

It would appear that the greater number of the Carthagin- 
ians who survived the fall of the metropolis repaired to Tunis, 
situated at the distance of about twelve miles, and added at 
once to its population and its commerce. Some, indeed, are 
said to have withdrawn into Egypt, and even into the near- 
est of the Asiatic provinces ; while others, incorporating with 
the mixed race of Liby-Phcenicians, fell back into the coun- 
tries which acknowledged the sway of the Numidian princes. 
In this manner the whole of maritime Barbary, from Alexan- 
dria to Algiers, became subject to the Romans ; for the Cy- 
renaica, as belonging to the kingdom of the Ptolemies, had 
previously fallen into their hands. The territory of Masinissa 
was relinquished to his sons, who seem to have exercised 
joint sovereignty, under the protection of their august allies 
until, upon the death of two of his brothers, the sceptre was 
assumed by Micipsa as his undivided right. In these cir- 
cumstances, and as the senate abstained from every attempt 
to extend their conquests in Africa, peace continued man/ 
years uninterrupted under the proconsular government, to 
which the states of Carthage were now committed. 

The tranquillity of the province was first disturbed by the 
ambition of Jugurtha, a nephew of the Numidian king, being 
a natural son of Manastabal, one of the children of the cel- 
ebrated Masinissa. Micipsa, whose accession has just been 
described, had two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, who being 
still very young when he felt himself approaching his end, he 
intrusted the care of their education and interests to their 
cousin, now arrived at maturer years. The youths, as they 
approached manhood, bore with impatience the ascendency 
to which their relative had attained, and did not take any 
care to conceal their contempt for his origin, or their neg- 
lect of his counsels. Yielding to the strong feeling of resent- 
ment which had been thus unwisely excited, Jugurtha had re- 
course to arms ; and as he possessed military talents far 
superior to those of the legitimate princes, his success in the 
I field of battle soon compelled them to make known theit 



40 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



cause at Rome, and entreat the aid or interposition of the 
senate.* 

The administration of the two brothers appears to have 
experienced opposition from other quarters, before they came 
to blows with the son of Manastabal. A sheik or petty chief 
in Numidia, whose name was Jarbas, had risen in actual re- 
oellion, and was not completely subdued until Pompey led 
against him a detachment of regular troops. Another pre- 
tender to the throne appeared in the person of Masintha, 
who could boast of a royal extraction, and, which was of much 
more value in his circumstances, the powerful patronage of 
Julius Caesar. This claimant presented himself before the 
Roman senate, where he was met by Juba, the son of Hi- 
empsal, in whose favour a decision was pronounced by the 
voice of the commonwealth. But Jugurtha, who was in 
arms against the same monarch, was better acquainted than 
Masintha with the means of influencing the judgment of that 
supreme council which now directed the- affairs of Europe, 
Asia Minor, and a large portion of Africa. He had discov- 
ered, that neither the general in the camp nor the senator in 
the hall of justice was inaccessible to a bribe ; and as he 
had an ample treasury, he never found himself destitute of 
friends, even among the stern advocates of republican purity. 
" O venal city!" he exclaimed, as he turned his back upon the 
towers of Romulus, " O city, ready for sale and destruction, 
shouldst thou meet a purchaser !"f 

Jugurtha, pursuing the wily system which he had thought 
proper to adopt, found a complete recompense in a victory 
gained over a consular army, whom he compelled to pass 
under the yoke within sight of the ruins of Carthage ; thereby 
gratifying the revenge of his country, and inflicting upon his 
proud conquerors an indelible disgrace. The defeated gen- 
eral bound himself to evacuate Numidia, with his whole 
forces, within ten days. J - 

* Sallusti Jugurtha, cap. xiii. 

f " Urbem venalem et mature perituram, si emptorem inve- 
nerit !" — Sallusti Jugurtha, cap. xxxv. 

| The vanquished chief was Aulus Albinus, the brother of the 
consul, who had been left in the temporary command of the 
army —Sail. Jugurth., c. xxviii. " Qua?, quanquam gravia et 
flagitii plena erant ; tamen quia mortis metu mutabant, secuti 
Regi libuerat, pax convenit." 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



41 



Rage and shame filled the breasts of the senators when 
they heard of this miserable catastrophe. Metellus, a brave 
soldier, who by his triumphs over this rebellious prince earned 
the distinction of Numidicus, was sent into Africa to recover 
the honour of Rome, and to secure the sovereignty for the 
descendants of Masinissa. The celebrated Marius, about 
two years afterward, routed him completely in a sanguinary 
engagement ; and finally, through the treachery of Bocchus, 
the father-in-law of the usurper, obtained possession of his 
erson, and condemned him to make part of the spectacle in 
is triumph. It is said that Jugurtha, amid the pomp of his 
victor's entry into the capital, lost his reason, or at least his 
presence of mind ; that the lictors stripped him ; took the 
jewels from his ears ; and threw him into a dungeon, where 
he justified to the last moment of his life all that he had 
averred concerning the rapacity of the Romans.* 

After these events, the crown of Numidia was given to 
Juba, the son of Hiempsal ; the enjoyment of which was cut 
short by the troubles which distracted Rome itself, and put 
a period to the republican government. There is, indeed, 
much apparent truth in the observation, that Carthage was 
no sooner levelled with the ground than an avenging deity 
seemed to rise from its ruins. The Roman manners became 
depraved ; the commonwealth began to be distracted by civil 
wars ; and these evils had their commencement upon the 
African shores. Scipio himself, the destroyer of that capital, 
died by the hands of his relations ; the children of Masinissa, 
who contributed to the success of the invaders, slaughtered 
one another in the very scene of their triumphs ; and the 
possessions of Syphax enabled Jugurtha to seduce and van- 
quish the countrymen of Regulus. Again, the victory ob- 
tained over this politic usurper occasioned that jealousy be- 
tween Marius and Sylla which soon plunged all Rome into 
mourning. Vanquished by his rival, the former of these 

* Plutarch, in his Life of Marius, says that Jugurtha, as he 
walked in the procession, ran distracted. Eutropius (lib. iv., 
c. 28) remarks, that he was led before the chariot of Marius, 
bound with chains, and accompanied by his two sons. "Ante 
currum," &c. 

" Nosse cupis vulgo non cognita fata Jugurth© 
Ut Plutsrchus ait, carcere clausus obit '* 
D2 



42 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



commanders sought an asylum amid the tombs of Hanno 
and Hamilcar ; and when a slave of Sextilius, the prefect 
of Africa, carried an order to the fugitive desiring him to 
quit the dilapidated walls which served him for a retreat, 
" Go tell thy master," replied the fallen consul, " that thou 
hast seen Marius seated upon the ruins of Carthage." 

The conflict between Pompey and Caesar was at length 
extended to the fields and deserts of Barbary. Juba, whose 
claims had been opposed in the senate by the latter of these 
warriors, took part with his antagonist, and joined himself 
to the remains of the fine army which had been broken at 
Pharsalia. The conqueror himself soon afterward appeared 
in Africa, where his talents and fortune produced their wonted 
effects ; subduing the more resolute of his enemies, and 
gaining the favour of those who were influenced by personal 
motives rather than by zeal for the cause in which they had 
engaged. Scipio Metellus, the father-in-law of Pompey, was 
defeated and put to death. The Numidian king, in order to 
escape from falling into the hands of the victor, induced his 
own friend. Petreius, to run him through the body. Cato slew 
himself at Utica ; and Sylla, who was taken by one of Caesar's 
lieutenants, was in a very summary manner deprived of life. 
Bocchus and Bogud, kings of Mauritania, who had alter- 
nately fought under the banners of the two great rivals, lost, 
in the end, both their lives and their dominions ; and hence, 
at the period when Augustus ascended the imperial throne, 
the whole of Barbary belonged to the Romans, or at least 
acknowledged them as the supreme rulers.* 

But although Northern Africa was thus reduced into the 
form of a province, the new emperor was too well acquainted 
with the manners of the people, and with the vast difference 
which still subsisted between their consuetudinal laws and 
the statutes of a civilized nation, to place the Numidian 
states under the superintendence of a Roman deputv. He 
therefore resolved to confer the honour of sovereignty upon 
young Juba, the son of the late king, who being a mere in- 
fant at the death of his father, was educated in Italy, and 
trained in all the accomplishments which became his rank. 
As his dispositions were not inferior to his genius, which was 
of the highest order, he acquired the esteem of Augustus, 



* A. Hirt. Pans, de Bello Africano, cap. 73-75. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



43 



who carried him as a companion in all his expeditions ; and 
at the end of the civil war, when the family of Cleopatra 
were received under his protection, he married his rOyal 
captive to a daughter of the Egyptian queen, giving her as a 
dowry the crowns of Mauritania and Numidia. 

This descendant of Micipsa is represented by historians as 
a very extraordinary person, and his works have been highly 
celebrated by learned men. According to Pliny, who fre- 
quently quotes his writings, he was a curious and indefati- 
gable collector of valuable records — extracting them from the 
Greek, Latin, Punic, and African chronicles, and connecting 
them in a continuous narrative with the greatest accuracy. 
He was, says the same historian, more distinguished for his 
erudition than by his kingly power.* 

This amiable prince was succeeded by his son Ptolemy, 
who owed his name to his mother's family, and who inherited 
the least auspicious part of their fortunes. A revolt of his 
subjects, headed by a brave though unprincipled leader, who 
is known to history under the appellation of Tacfarinas, not 
only disturbed his government several years, but also em- 
ployed the arms of Rome in a very doubtful war. Tacitus 
remarks, that many generals contented themselves with tri- 
umphal honours, without exerting their strength to subdue 
the enemy. At Rome had been erected no fewer than three 
statues crowned with laurel, and yet Africa was still ravaged 
by the insurgents, who, disgusted w r ith the conduct of some 
of Ptolemy's officers, preferred an honourable war to an in- 
glorious vassalage. Their place of retreat w r as the territory 
of Garamantis, whose prince shared in the spoil, though 
wuthout sending his troops into the field. Dolabella, the 
proconsul, whose force had been unduly diminished by the 
recall of the ninth legion-, found it necessary to attack his 
enemy under the cloud of night. Hearing that the Numid- 
ians had taken possession of a wood as a safe place of en- 
campment, he made a forced march with his cavalry and 
light-armed foot, and falling upon them while still asleep, 
and their horses at pasture, he gained an easy and a most 
complete victory. The Romans, irritated by the fatiguing 
service in which they had been so long employed, and stung 
by the remembrance of several discomfitures, failed not to 



* Plin., Hist. Nat., lib.v., c. 1. Tacit., Annal., lib. iv., c. 13. 



4*> 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



take ample revenge on their unresisting foes. The main 
ohject of their desire, however, was the life or captivity of 
Tacfarinas ; being satisfied that as long as he should sur- 
vive, the disaffected Africans would never be without a rally- 
ing point, a standard to follow, and a general to lead. But 
this brave rebel had determined that the soldiers of Augustus 
should not exult over him as a prisoner. Perceiving that all 
his guards were cut in pieces, that his son was already taken, 
and his adversaries pouring in thickly upon him, he sprang 
undauntedly forward into the midst of his assailants, and sold 
his life at a dear price.* 

Ptolemy did not long enjoy the peace which was purchased 
at the expense of so much blood ; for being invited to Rome 
by the Emperor Caligula, he was barbarously murdered at 
the command of that tyrant, who either coveted his riches or 
envied his popularity. He was the last king of Africa for 
many ages ; his dominions at his death being incorporated 
with the contiguous provinces, and governed by a pretor or 
proconsul. Mauritania, on this occasion, was divided into 
two sections — a measure which was not accomplished with- 
out some disturbance and much bloodshed ; for JEdemon, 
one of the freedmen of the late sovereign, took up arms to 
revenge his death. This war, which was prosecuted with 
various success, continued some years during the reign of 
Claudius, and, indeed, appears not to have reached its ter- 
mination till near the middle of the first century ; various 
leaders having sprung up to vindicate the independence of 
Western Africa, which, before these troubles, had not been 
approached by a Roman army.f 

Having brought down the narrative of events, so far as 
they can be ascertained from authentic history, to the mem- 
orable epoch when the Roman empire gave laws to the greater 
part of the civilized world, and changed the form of supreme 
power in most of the ancient nations whose shores were 
washed by the Mediterranean, it may be convenient to pause 
until we shall have given a short sketch of the constitution 
and commerce of the Barbary States at the remote era to 
which our attention is now directed. 

* Annal., lib. iv., c. 15. 

t Dion Cassius, lib. 59. Seneca, de tranquil. Vitae. Plin., 
lib, v., c. 1, 2 Sueton in vita Cah>.. sect ?*i 



CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC, 45 



CHAPTER II. 

Constitution, Commerce, and Navigation of the Phoenician 
Colonies on the Coast of Barlary. 

Independence of the federated Towns, Utica, Leptis, &c. — 
Predominance of Carthage — Constancy of her Government — 
Its Progress described — Originally a Monarchy, but gradually 
became aristocratical — House of Mago — Rights of the People 
exercised in public Assemblies — And in the Election of Magis- 
trates — Decided in all questions in which the Kings and Sen- 
ate could not agree — Constitution and Power of the Senate — 
The Select Council — The Kings or SurTetes— Distinction be- 
tween the King and a General — Some resemblance to Roman 
Consuls and Hebrew Judges — Wise Administration of Justice 
— No judicial Assemblies of the People — Basis of Power oc- 
cupied by the Senate — Trade and Commerce of Carthage — 
Inherited from the Phoenicians — Her Position favourable — ■ 
Engrossed the Trade of Africa and Southern Europe — Op- 
posed by the Greeks at Marseilles — Her intercourse with 
Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, and the Balearic Isles — The Mines 
of Spain attract her Notice — Carthaginian Dealers penetrate 
into Gaul — Colonies in the Atlantic — The western Coasts of 
Spain — Voyages to Britain and the Tin Islands — Poem of 
Festus Avienus — Trade in Amber — Question whether the 
Carthaginians ever entered the Baltic — Voyage of Hanno 
towards the South — Colonies planted on the western Coast 
of Africa — The Towns built in that Quarter — The Carthagin- 
ians discovered Madeira — The Date at which the Expedi- 
tions of Hanno and Hamilco took place — Proofs that Carthage 
must have attained great Power and Civilization — Her Libra- 
ries — Agriculture — Splendid Villas — Rich Meadows and Gar- 
dens — Her extensive Land trade across the Desert — Her war- 
like Propensities — Causes of her Decline and Fall. 

Of the trading towns or smaller states which owned a 
subordination to Carthage, some were colonies which had 
sprung immediately from herself, and others were settle- 
ments founded by their common parent, the wealthy city of 
Tyre. Sallust, who had good means of information on this 
subject, informs his readers, that not only Utica and Leptis, 
but also Adrumetum, Hippo, and other large towns on the 



46 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



coast, were of Phoenician origin.* These establishments are 
also understood to have been free and independent from the 
beginning ; every one, with a moderate territory annexed to 
it, forming a little republic. Hence, the Carthaginians, 
even when they had attained their greatest degree of power, 
did not exercise an absolute government over these colonial 
sovereignties ; but rather, on all proper occasions, were ready 
to acknowledge their constitutional freedom, and likewise 
their right of entering into separate alliances with foreign 
nations. This opinion is supported by the remarkable fact, 
mentioned by Polybius, that, in a commercial treaty between 
them and the Romans, made in the year 348 before Christ, 
it is said, " upon these conditions shall be peace between 
Rome and hor allies, and between Carthage, Utica, and their 
allies." Here, it is obvious, Utica is recognised as on a 
footing of equality with the larger state, and as having the 
privilege of contracting, in regard to trade, a friendly inter- 
course with the Roman commonwealth, then fast approach- 
ing to her political supremacy. 

It cannot be concealed, at the same time, that the greater 
riches and population of the colony founded hv Dido, secured 
for it a predominating influence over the others, which ap- 
pear to have conceded, without reluctance, that pre-eminence 
in public affairs which belonged to the mother-cities of 
Greece. Aristotle, who was well acquainted with the dif- 
ferent constitutions which prevailed in his age, mentions, as 
a peculiar circumstance in the Carthaginian government, 
that, dovvn to his own days, it had undergone no very great 
change, either from the impatience of its citizens or the 
usurpation of tyrants — a proof that its principles were at 
once well balanced and judiciously administered. In com- 
mon with Athens, Rome, Sparta, and the other celebrated 
democracies of ancient times, this Phoenician community, as 
we have just observed, presented the general character of 
having a single city for its head ; and hence, however great 
the dominions of the metropolis might become, the govern- 

* Sallust. Jugurth., c. 19. — " Postea Phcenices, alii multitu- 
dinis domi minuendae gratia, pars imperii cupidine, solicitata 
plebe et aliis novarum rerum avidis, Hipponem, Hadrumetum, 
Leptim aliasque urbes in ora maritima condidere." — Polyb., lib. 
i., C. 1. Heerpn vol- i.. D. 43. 



OE THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 



47 



ment must still have remained municipal. It is nevertheless 
true, that the constitution of Carthage was not constructed 
upon any particular model, but arose, like the frame of so- 
.ciety everywhere else, out of the circumstances in which 
she found herself placed. Originating in a monarchy, or rath- 
er, perhaps, in that patriarchal rule of which the eastern 
nations everywhere exhibit the pattern, it soon passed into 
a republic, where certain powers were extended to all orders 
of the state. Without trusting implicitly to the historical 
authorities usually quoted in support of these views, we 
might indeed presume, that this people, after the manner of 
all ancient colonies, adopted the political usages of their an- 
cestors at Tyre, so far as these could be rendered applicable 
to the condition of things in which their civic authorities 
were first called to act.* 

But although the Carthaginians are said to have preferred 
a commonwealth to the more despotic form which they had. 
brought from Asia, it is generally understood that the actual 
administration of affairs was lodged in the hands of a few 
powerful families who constituted the aristocracy of wealth. 
As the magisterial office conferred honour, and even a cer- 
tain rank, without any revenue, it must necessarily have been 
bestowed on persons distinguished by some measure of opu- 
lence ; whence, we cannot be surprised to learn that, though 
there was no hereditary claim, riches supplied a qualification 
which, in most cases, was held equally valid. Aristotle has 
accordingly remarked, that the governors of the city were 
chosen on account of their property, their worth, and their 
popular virtues. In ordinary times, such considerations 
would doubtless have their full weight ; but it is manifest, 
that in a nation devoted to conquest, another and a more 
prevailing source of influence would soon be opened up, in 
the superior military talents of an individual or a family. 
The Greek and Roman writers, owing to the scanty remains 
of Carthaginian history which fell into their hands, could not 
. determine with precision the rise of those great names which 
|i figure in the more important transactions of the republic, her 
w r ars and treaties, and occasionally created so much jealousy 
in the minds of the people. But the house of Mago, the first 
conquerors of Sicily, affords a striking instance of the asceuoV 

* Arist. Politic, lib, v.-, c. 



48 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



ency now alluded to ; having, during the lapse of four gen 
erations, supplied commanders to their countrymen.* 

It is manifest, therefore, that the royal functions being 
superseded, the government of the ancient Barbary States, 
three or four centuries before the Christian era, had become 
a mixture of aristocracy with an infusion of democratical ele- 
ments. We find, accordingly, that Polybius and Aristotle, 
the most competent authorities on this subject, place the 
constitution of Carthage among those mixed forms where 
power is divided between the people, properly so called, and 
the patrician order, which has gradually risen from them. 
The one compares it to the administration of Sparta, before 
anarchy or despotism had paralyzed its rulers ; and the other 
likens it to that of Rome, when, as yet, no demagogue had 
insulted the majesty of the senate. t 

The rights enjoyed by the people appear to have been 
chiefly displayed in their public assemblies ; but as to the 
precise extent of their privileges, and the manner in which 
they were exercised, history does not convey any satisfactory 
information. It is generally admitted, however, that the 
popular part of the government was invested with a certain 
influence in the election of the chief magistrates or kings — 
a right which, while it imposed on the leading families a 
feeling of dependance, raised the great body of the commons 
to a suitable degree of political elevation. But we learn 
from Aristotle, that the distinction now mentioned was often 
prostituted to the lowest purposes ; that the electors, in 
most cases, were actuated by considerations of gain rather 
than of national honour or advantage ; and that, in his time, 
the highest offices in Carthage were obtained by bribery. 
We are informed by the same author, that there was placed 
in the hands of the people the prerogative of deciding in all 
questions concerning which the king and the senate could 
not agree ; and on this principle it was not uncommon to find 
them deliberating on matters of the deepest importance, such 
as declarations of war and treaties of peace. 

The senate, it is however acknowledged, possessed a para- 
mount authority in all state affairs ; and, in fact, previous to 
the wars with Rome, exercised nearly the whole power of 

* Arist. Polit, lib. v., c. 

f Aristotle, as just quoted. Polyb., lib, Vf., c. 2. 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 49 



the commonwealth. But it is not certainly known, whether 
that assembly was permanent, or consisted of a body of citi- 
zens which was from time to time renewed, nor even what 
was the exact number of its constituent members. The as- 
cendency which it had acquired strengthens the probability 
that it was not entirely dependant on the suffrages of the 
people ; and there is equal reason to conclude that, like the 
Roman senate, it amounted to several hundreds, whose rank 
or services entitled them to a voice in its decisions. This 
inference derives confirmation from the fact, that out of it 
was chosen a more Select Council, which, it is said, was 
held in the greatest reverence, and enjoyed an unquestiona- 
ble control over the senate itself. In respect to the origin 
of this supreme committee, Justin gives the following ac- 
count : — " As the house of Mago became dangerous to a free 
state, 100 judges were chosen from among the senators, who, 
upon the return of generals from war, should demand an ac- 
count of the things transacted by them, that they, being 
thereby kept in awe, should so conduct themselves in their 
military commands as to have regard to the laws of their 
country." As this tribunal consisted of a number so con- 
siderable, it may be concluded that the assembly from which 
it was drawn comprehended no small proportion of the older 
and more wealthy families.* 

This council, clothed with powers at once very extensive 
and arbitrary, became, in the end, dangerous to that liberty 
which it was its peculiar duty to protect. It is manifest, 
however, that during the flourishing period of the republic, it 
answered the purpose for which it was designed ; checking 
at once the power of triumphant commanders and the inso- 
lence of aspiring demagogues. At a later period, as has now 
been suggested, it degenerated into the most intolerable des- 
potism ; many officers being known to commit suicide rather 
than incur the hazard of its tyrannical rigour. 

On the whole, it is the opinion of Heeren, that the duties 
of the Carthaginian senate, including both the larger and the 
smaller body, were of the same nature and extent as those 
of the Roman. There is no doubt that all business relating 
to foreign affairs was under their management ; the official 
reports being laid before them by the kings or suffetes t who 



* Justin., lib. rviii, c. 3-7; lib. xix., c. 1, 2. 
E 



50 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



presided at their meetings. They likewise received foreign 
ambassadors ; deliberated on all national concerns ; and de- 
cided upon the expediency of peace and war, although, as a 
matter cf form, the question was sometimes submitted to the 
people. The power of the senate, therefore, seems to have 
been unlimited, so long as its determinations agreed with 
those of the nominal sovereigns ; and, consequently, its 
members held in their hands the greater part of the legisla- 
tive authority. To their care, a^so, were confided the wel- 
fare and security of the city, as well a* the direction of the 
public revenue.* 

But the highest office in the Carthaginian commonwealth 
was that of the kings, as they are usually denominated by 
the Greek writers. These were a class of rulers who, in 
their rank and duties, corresponded to the Consuls of Rome 
and to the Judges of the Hebrew tribes prior to the age of 
Samuel. All which is positively known respecting them -is, 
that they were elected from the principal families of the 
state ; that they presided in the senate ; and that, in some 
other respects, they possessed a high degree of authority. 
It remains doubtful, however, whether there were two in 
office at the same time, or only one ; and an equal uncer- 
tainty exists as to the duration of their appointment. The 
prevailing opinion among the best-informed authors of the 
present day is, that they continued in power during their 
whole lives. 

It would appear that a distinction was uniformly preserved 
at Carthage between the duties of the king or judge, and 
those of the general who led the national troops into the field 
of battle ; though, on certain occasions, it should seem, the 
union of the civil and military jurisdiction was not deemed 
incompatible. It was held sufficient, as a security for public 
freedom, that the rank of sovereign did not imply the more 
dangerous authority of chief commander ; that the latter 
could not be held by the suffetes without a special nomina- 
tion by the senate, confirmed in the assembly of the people ; 
and that at the close of the campaign his powers expired, 
and could not be revived without the regular forms of a new 
appointment. 

In the administration of justice the Carthaginians seem to 



* Historical Reeoarche3, vol. j., chap. 3, 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 51 



have acted more wisely than the Greeks, and to have em- 
ployed regular magistrates for the decision of all lawsuits. 
The people, accordingly, never assembled in a body to exer- 
cise the judicial functions, as they were wont at Home and 
Athens, where so much injustice was perpetrated on public 
characters. This arrangement must have prevented many 
evils, as popular tribunals are well known to have formed 
one of the most dangerous institutions possessed by the free 
states of antiquity ; and it appears also to have been founded 
on an aristocratical principle quite opposed to the irresponsi- 
ble judgment of the multitude. In these respects the usages 
of Carthage bore a close resemblance to those of Lacedaemon, 
though it must be acknowledged that the information con- 
veyed by Aristotle is so limited as not to afford materials for 
any certain or general conclusion. 

The account now given, imperfect as it is, may neverthe- ■ 
less be sufficient to show the general character of the an- 
cient constitutions which distinguished the Barbary States. 
In a commercial community, depending on a single town, 
little else could be expected than that the more opulent 
families would seize the government, and form an aristocracy 
of which the main power rested in the senate ; the members 
of which, too, would derive their chief dignity from the 
splendour of their wealth and conquests, and draw their 
strength from the mutual jealousy of the popular factions, and 
even from the religion of the people. On this foundation 
their polity remained firm and unshaken during several centu- 
ries ; nor was it until after the first peace with Rome that 
new circumstances arose, which dissevered the bands whereby 
the government of Carthage had been so long held together. 

Proceeding now to make a few remarks on the commer- 
cial relations of this famous republic, we may observe, that 
trade and navigation are in all cases so intimately connected 
as to render it very difficult to consider them apart. As the 
daughter of Tyre, this great city was naturally led to lay the 
foundations of her power on her traffic with other countries. 
No nation in the ancient world is more celebrated than the 
Phoenicians as skilful craftsmen and adventurous sailors ; 
carrying their manufactures, together with the commodities 
which they imported from the remote regions of the East and 
the South, to the provinces spread along the Black Sea and 
the borders of the Atlantic. Corn and honey, oil and bairn. 



52 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



were brought from Judah and Israel ; from Damascus came 
the wine of Helbon and the fine wool for which that part of 
Syria was long famous ; the cypresses of Mount Hermon, the 
oaks of Bashan, the cedars of Lebanon, and the box-wood 
of Cyprus, were conveyed to Tyre, in exchange for the pro- 
ductions of her mechanical ingenuity. In Tarshish, or Spain, 
the Tyrians obtained silver, iron, tin, and lead ; from the 
Isles of Elisha, or the shores of Asia Minor, was imported, 
according to the prophet, a species of blue and purple sail- 
cloth, which proved extremely useful to their merchant-ships. 
From Egypt were conveyed cotton and linen goods, and 
perhaps those rarer articles of traffic, which were carried on 
the backs of camels from the interior of Africa. The eastern 
shores of Arabia supplied wrought iron, spices, ivory, ebony, 
gold, and precious stones, — all which were brought over land 
to the coast of the Mediterranean, and exchanged for Phoeni- 
cian manufactures or Spanish silver. 

Carthage succeeded to a large portion of the trade origi- 
nally possessed by the enterprising state from which she de- 
rived her origin. In some respects her position was more 
favourable for commerce with Africa and Western Europe, 
than even that of Tyre and Sidon ; and there is no doubt 
that she availed herself of her advantages, in securing the 
riches of the Spanish peninsula, as well as those of the negro 
kingdoms situated beyond the Sahara. By means of cara- 
vans, her goods sought a market on the banks of the Upper 
Nile, and on either side of the Arabian Gulf; and in the 
Mediterranean her ships found an entrance into all the 
principal ports, from Cyrene to the Straits. With a view 
of extending her commerce and creating a demand for her 
manufactures, she formed settlements in Sicily, Sardinia, 
Corsica, and the Balearic Islands. This step became the 
more necessary to her, because, though she kept up a corre- 
spondence with the parent-country, as also with Greece, 
Egypt, and the Pentapolis, she appears not to have at any 
time enjoyed a large share of trade in those parts. Among 
these ancient nations, where competition already prevailed to 
no small extent, she could not fail to encounter many rivals ; 
on which account, her rulers wisely endeavoured to secure an 
exclusive intercourse with the less polished tribes who occu- 
pied the western shores of their inland sea. Even this ob- 
ject was not accomplished without opposition ; for a Greek 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 



53 



colony, planted at Marseilles, claimed the trade of Southern- 
Gaul, while other establishments, not less jealous, asserted 
a previous right to whatever profit might be derived from 
buying and selling among the Italians and merchants of 
Sicily. 

It was, however, to the countries just named, that her 
mercantile navigation was first directed. Carthaginian tra- 
ders settled at an early period in Syracuse, as well as in other 
Greek cities, whose harbours were always full of their ships ; 
while, on the other hand, these rich countries found the Tyrian 
colonists the best customers for their oil and wine, which 
they again disposed of at Cyrene, in exchange for commodi- 
ties still more highly prized. That an active commerce ex- 
isted between Carthage and the other nations of Italy — the 
Romans and Etrurians — is rendered manifest by the numer- 
ous treaties, of which some record still remains. The greater 
part of these, we are told, related to the suppression of piracy, 
at that time carried on by all maritime nations, especially by 
those on the northern side of the Mediterranean — a practice 
which extended, not only to the plunder of towns, but also 
to the abduction of the inhabitants, who were instantly sold 
into captivity. The articles presented in the Italian markets 
by the States of Barbary, were black slaves from the interior, 
precious stones, gold, and manufactures ; and, in return for 
these, they accepted, as has just been remarked, the produce 
of the soil — corn, wine, and oil, together with certain speci- 
mens of art, in which the natives were already beginning to 
excel. Malta, which belonged to Carthage, soon became 
celebrated for the beautiful cloths it produced ; Lipara and 
its dependances, which owned the same government, supplied 
an abundance of resin, then esteemed a very valuable article ; 
Corsica was celebrated for its wax and slaves ; and Elba 
enjoyed a high reputation, arising from its inexhaustible stores 
of iron, which were imagined to grow under the hand of the 
miner. 

It has already been suggested that the Barbary States 
maintained an early and very extensive intercourse with 
Spain. That country, so rich in natural productions, pre- 
sented one of the most profitable marts for the Carthaginian 
trade ; while its mines formed one of the principal sources 
of their revenue. At the period when they were first visited 
by the ships of the new republic, the inhabitants ha4 attained 



54 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



just that degree of civilization which made them acquainted 
with foreign commodities, and led them to covet their pos- 
session, without having inspired them with the knowledge of 
producing any work of art which might be given in exchange. 
Hence the traffic with them must have been extremely advan- 
tageous to the older nation, who could, in the absence of all 
competition, charge for their goods an arbitrary price. Pene- 
trating through the peninsula, the chapmen of Carthage car- 
ried their wares into France — not having yet established a 
footing cn its southern shores, which, as is mentioned above, 
were jealously occupied by the Greeks of Massilia, a people 
not less devoted than themselves to the pursuits of com- 
merce. This early intercourse with Gaul is proved by the 
great number of mercenary troops from that country, which, 
during the first of the Sicilian wars, fought in the Cartha- 
ginian armies, as well as by the eager desire which was man- 
ifested to expel the settlers, who had anticipated them in 
colonizing its richest provinces.* 

As to the trade which the African merchants extended into 
the Atlantic, it is difficult to make a distinction between what 
they accomplished as original adventurers and what they 
inherited from their Phoenician progenitors. It is manifest 
that the ships of Tyre had already opened the way for them 
beyond the Pillars of Hercules ; and it admits not of any 
doubt that they continued to follow the track thus indicated 
to their commercial navy. The best writers on this subject 
are unanimous in the opinion, that the Carthaginians had a 
number of colonies on the western coast of Spain, as also 
that the articles which principally composed their cargoes 
were tin and amber. According to the express evidence of 
antiquity, the metal now mentioned was found, not only in the 
mountains of Biscay, but also in Britain, and in certain islands 
which lay not far from its shores.! 

With respect to the course of this trade, we are informed 
by Strabo, that in early times it was conducted by the Phoe- 
nicians, or Carthaginians who had their principal seat at Ga- 
des. It would appear, therefore, that this people at first con- 
tented themselves with the office of carriers ; though, from 
the extent of their navigation, it might be concluded that they 



* Diodor. Sicul., lib. v., c. 21. Scylax, p. 50, quoted by Hee- 
ren. f Diodor. Sicul, lib. v., c. 19-22. 



OP THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 55 



frequently approached the British shores, and transacted busi- 
ness with the natives. Some light is thrown on this inquiry, 
by a passage in the poem of Festus Avienus, who has clothed 
in verse the more remarkable incidents which distinguished 
the voyage of Hamilco. Kd relates that the (Estrymnian 
Islands — supposed to be those now named the Scilly — 
abound in tin and lead. Their numerous inhabitants, says 
he, are proud and ingenious, and devote themselves entirely 
to commerce, gliding over the sea in their frail canoes, formed, 
not of wood, but of hides. Two days' sail from them is the 
" Sacred Island," inhabited by the Hibernians ; but the 
island of the Albiones is close at hand. The Tartessians 
were the first traders to the GEstrymnian Islands, though 
the colonies and the people of Carthage about the Pillars of 
Hercules navigate these seas. The voyage, as Hamilco 
affirms, occupies four months, as he himself experienced.* 

This quotation proves that it was chiefly the Tartessians — 
in other words, the Phoenician colonists in Spain — who per- 
formed the voyages to which Avienus alludes. Carthage, 
however, and her settlements, also took an active part ; and 
Hamilco himself had extended his course, whether for trade 
or discovery, to the same point. The long period exhausted 
in a voyage, comparatively so short, is accounted for in his 
own narrative, in which he states that he proceeded along 
the coast, where his progress was impeded by many obstruc- 
tions. Among these he mentions a vast accumulation of 
seaweed, which, together with other impediments not more 
intelligible to a modern sailor, prevented him from stretching 
out into the open main. The Scilly Isles were unquestiona- 
bly the object that he had principally in view, though the in- 
tercourse which the Carthaginians maintained with these minor 
settlements, comprehended also some acquaintance with Hi- 
bernia and the neighbouring shores of Albion, both of which, 
it is more than probable, were visited by the Eastern naviga- 
tors. In fact, from what Strabo says, it may be inferred that 
an active commerce existed on the English coast, as he 
observes that the manners of the native tribes were rendered 
milder by their frequent intercourse with strangers. It 
might even be conjectured, from his remarks, that the mer- 
chants of Carthage had regular stations in Britain, without 

* Festus Avienus, Ora Maritima, v. 95-125. 



56 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



which a long stay among the inhabitants, such at least as to 
affect their habits, would not have been practicable. 

The trade here, as well as in the Scilly Isles, appears to 
have resolved itself, as was usual in those ancient times, into 
a species of barter. Earthenware, salt, and iron tools, were 
commodities with which the foreigners supplied them. But 
on this subject we labour under a want of details ; for, till the 
time of the Romans, the particulars of the traffic which the 
Carthaginians carried on with their customers beyond the 
Straits were enveloped in the profoundest secrecy. This 
precaution, however, did not keep away all competitors. The 
way which the Phoenicians found out by sea, the Greeks of 
Massilia found out by land ; for, journeying along the shore 
as far as the British Channel, whence they procured quanti- 
ties of tin, at that time an object of great request, they con- 
veyed it, after thirty days' travel, to the mouth of the Rhone. 

The descriptions of the ancients, in respect to the dealings 
of the Phoenician colonists, both in Spain and Africa, with 
the natives of the tin countries, are at once so minute and 
distinct, that there is no room whatever for doubt as to the 
great extent of their trade and navigation several centuries 
before the Christian era. The case, however, as Heeren 
justly observes, is widely different with regard to the other 
articles which induced them to brave the terrors of the At- 
lantic, namely, the production which by them was denomi- 
nated " electrum," and is familiarly known to us by the des- 
ignation of amber. Every circumstance connected with the 
obtainment of this commodity has been so darkened by fable, 
that the narratives of the best authors are rendered quite 
unintelligible — a fact which proves that the country whence 
it was procured was much more distant than the lands which 
abounded in tin. This obscurity, too, which every reader 
has cause to lament, has been not a little increased by the 
attempts of certain moderns to confine the trade in amber to 
one place ; while, from the accounts given by Pliny, it is clear 
that it was to be found in several districts and islands in the 
north of Europe. The whole of Scandinavia was celebrated 
for this valuable commodity ; and, assuredly, there is no good 
reason for supposing, that the daring nation which doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and sailed from Tyre to Britain, 
might not also have reached the Samlandic coast.* 

* See Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i., p. 173. 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 57 



But the absence of facts forbids any confident conclusion 
relative to this particular branch of that very extensive com- 
merce in which the ancient States of Barbarv, under the au- 
spices of their Tyrian colonists, are known to have engaged ; 
and he who endeavours to elicit historical truth from the 
maze of fabulous geography with which alone we are sup- 
plied, pursues a phantom which will for ever elude his most 
eager grasp. * 

It is generally admitted, that the CEstrymnian «or Cassi- 
terides, that is, the Tin Islands of the ancients, may be iden- 
tified with those of Scilly. It is remarkable, however, that in 
these last there are no traces of tin at the present day, and 
no vestiges that it was ever found there in a natwe state. 
Neither, as a modern author observes, if the Atlantic navi- 
gation of the Carthaginians was all along the coast, can we 
see why the metals should have been brought thither for sale 
from Cornwall, which lies just as near Ushant, w T hence the 
trading vessels must have stretched across the Channel. 
Lelewel considers the Bay of Biscay to have been the great 
recess in which the QEstrymnian Islands were situated ; but 
the Scilly Isles, it is well known, do not lie there, and no 
efforts will make the description of the cape, bay, and isl- 
ands, given in Avienus, correspond with the real appearance 
of the western coast of Europe. But, on the whole, there is 
very little reason to dispute the fact, that the southern coast 
of Britain was visited by Punic merchantmen ; though it 
must be acknowledged, that there is no direct proof of their 
having proceeded any farther north. The amber which was 
conveyed to the Mediterranean may have been purchased on 
the coast of Gaul, whither it could be brought overland by 
the Germans. It may even have been carried thither by sea ; 
for it is not improbable that the Scandinavians, even at that 
early epoch, were no less expert navigators than they were 
actually found to be at the very dawn of history.! 

While Hamilco was employed in surveying the western 
shores of Portugal and Spain, his brother Hanno conducted 
an expedition towards the south, with the view of planting 
colonies on the borders of Africa. His fleet amounted to 
sixty large shjj^s, having on board 30,000 persons, who had 

* See Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i., p. 173. 
t Foreign Quarterly Review, No. xxvii., p. 220, &c, 



58 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



consented to occupy new lands at a distance from Carthage. 
These he distributed into six towns, which of course con- 
tained on an average 5,000 inhabitants. They consisted, we 
are told, of Liby-Phcenicians — the descendants of the natives 
and of the Tyrian emigrants — and were chosen, not from the 
citizens, but from the peasantry of the adjoining districts. 
The settlements of Hanno, it is presumed, did not extend 
beyond the boundaries of Fez and Morocco ; the first of them, 
which w§s called Thymatirium, being only two days' sail 
from the termination of the strait or promontory of Spartel. 
Next to that is mentioned the point of Soloe or Cape Blanco, 
where was erected a temple to Neptune, or, as Scylax de- 
scribes it, a large altar decorated with bass-reliefs, represent- 
ing human figures, lions, and dolphins. Proceeding a day 
and a half farther south along the coast, the navigator selected 
places for five towns, — Teechos, Gytta, Acra, Melite, and 
Arambe. The remotest settlement was Kerne, which, it is 
supposed, must be sought for in the vicinity of Mogadore, or, 
perhaps, in the Bay of Santa Cruz.* 

The colonies planted by Hanno seem to have been the first 
which were established in those unfrequented regions ; at 
least no traces are found in his narrative of any community 
of human beings having fixed their abode on the lands that he 
appropriated. The whole length of the coast is described as 
a discovery which he appears to have carried beyond the Sen- 
egal, though he did not take possession of all the territory he- 
explored. As to his settlements, their ultimate fate is wrapped 
in obscurity ; in the time of the Roman wars they had ceased 
to exist as Carthaginian dependances, and had probably fal- 
len a prey to the tribes of the neighbouring Desert. 

Their intercourse with the Atlantic shores of Africa, would 
almost necessarily make the Carthaginians acquainted with 
some of those numerous islands which lie scattered in the 
ocean. t Diodorus, accordingly, relates, that the Phoenicians 

* Scylax. Periplus, p. 2. Festus Avienus, v. 357. 
" Ultra has columnas propter Europa? latus 
Yicos et urbes incolse Carthaginis 
Tenuere quondam." 

f Diodor. Siculus, lib. v., c. 19. Heeren remarks, that the 
description in the text could not apply to the Canary Islands. 
A passage in Avienus seems to allude to Teneriife and its vol* 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 59 



—a name which he frequently applied to the mariners of the 
Barbary States — had detected an island many days' sail 
westward from Libya ; the glowing description he gives of 
which recalls to our recollection the idea of such happy clus- 
ters as have from time to time been brought to light in the 
South Sea, where summer always prevails, where the trees 
are ever green, and where the wants of the inhabitants are 
supplied by the spontaneous gifts of nature. All that he tells 
us, of its being situated at a considerable distance in the 
ocean, of its streams and rivers, of its productions, its fruits, 
and foliage, agrees with no other island so well as Madeira. 

Historians and geographers have long disputed as to the 
extent of the navigation which the ships of Carthage accom- 
plished in the Atlantic Ocean. Some are content with ex- 
tending the limits of their voyages from the southern coast 
of Britain on the north to Cape Bojador on the south ; while 
others, conferring upon them a share in the direct trade with 
the Baltic, conduct their ships to the mouth of the Vistula 
and the coast of Prussia on the one hand, and on the other, 
to the estuaiy of the Gambia and the shores of Guinea. It 
is even maintained, that they crossed to America, and visited 
the borders of the New World — an opinion founded so en- 
tirely upon conjecture, as to be beyond the reach of fact or 
reasoning, were we to undertake its refutation. We agree 
with an author already quoted, that " at the time Carthage 
was most flourishing, she traded northward directly to Brit- 
ain, and indirectly to the Baltic ; southward to the Gambia 
by sea, and by caravans far into the interior of Africa ; while 
eastward she carried on an active commerce with all parts of 
the Mediterranean, and, through the mother-city, obtained 
the productions of India." She may, too, have purchased 

cano. Beyond the Pillars lies an island, — " Ultra has colum- 
nas," &c. 

" On Ocean's bosom spread, 
Where varying herbs in wild profusion grow, 
Sacred to Saturn is the land esteemed ; 
And Nature's power is there terrific seen : 
For when by chance the mariner draws nigh 
The coast, the ambient waters rage around, 
The island shakes and starts among the waves, 
And deeply trembles ; while the ocean lies 
Calm in the distance, silent and unmoved."— Ver. 164, &c 



60 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



slaves from the Grecian slave-dealers. Her commercial rela- 
tions would thus extend over nearly the whole of the known 
world, and would only be surpassed by those of modern 
Europe since the discovery of America, and of the passage 
to the East by the Cape of Good Hope.* 

It is manifest that the spirit of monopoly was a chief ele- 
ment in the Carthaginian laws, as is proved by their commer- 
cial treaties with Rome, and from the fact of its being the 
custom to drown the crews of such vessels, belonging to other 
nations, as were found in the vicinity of those places with which 
they carried on the most lucrative traffic. This ardent ri- 
valry is assigned by Heeren as the main cause why their trade 
was not more extensive in the eastern parts of the Mediter- 
ranean, where they could not escape a very active competi- 
tion with the older dealers. 

It would appear that the expeditions under Hanno and 
Hamilco took place about 480 years before the reign of Au- 
gustus — a period when Carthage enjoyed the blessing of a 
profound peace. Her progress in wealth, population, and 
refinement, must already have been very considerable. A 
fleet of sixty large ships, each propelled by fifty oars, and hav- 
ing on board 30,000 emigrants, denotes the power and con- 
dition of a prosperous state. Another proof of her advance- 
ment in the arts and enjoyments of social life, is the attention 
paid by her citizens to agriculture regarded as a science. 
Pliny relates, that when the Romans overthrew the city of 
Dido, they gave the libraries found there to their allies, the 
Numidians — a circumstance which throws some light upon 
the manner in which the works of the Carthaginian histori- 
ans had come into the possession of King Hiempsal. The 
works of Mago alone, one of the kings or suffetes, extending 
to twenty-eight books, were translated into Latin by Solinus ; 
some fragments of which, preserved by the distinguished 
naturalist to whom we owe our knowledge of this fact, are 
sufficient to show, that the royal author treated fully of all 
kinds of husbandry, agriculture, planting, breeding of stock, 
and the improvement of fruit-trees. It cannot, then, be 
doubted, even if the mention of libraries failed to prove it, 
that there was a Carthaginian literature ; that it was patron- 
ised by the great ; and had already passed from the romance 



* Foreign Quarterly Review, No. xxvii., p. 225. 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES. 61 



of poetry, the first composition of all rude nations, into the 
more didactic form of prose.* 

All accounts agree in praising the high state of cultivation 
found in the neighbourhood of Carthage. We learn from*" 
Diodorus, that the territory through which Agathocles led his 
army, after landing on the African shore, was covered with 
gardens and large plantations, everywhere abounding in ca- 
nals, by means of which they were plentifully watered. A 
continual succession of fine estates were seen, adorned with 
elegant buildings, which indicated. the opulence of their pro- 
prietors. These dwellings, says he, were furnished with 
every thing requisite for the enjoyment of men ; the owners 
having accumulated immense stores during the long peace. 
The lands were planted with vines, with palms, and with many 
other trees bearing fruit. On one side were meadows filled 
with flocks and herds, and on the lower grounds were seen 
numerous brood-mares, reserved for the uses of the army, the 
chariot, or the husbandman. In short, the whole prospect 
displayed the riches of the inhabitants ; while the higher 
ranks had very extensive possessions, and vied with one an- 
other in pomp and luxury. t 

Fifty years later, when the dominions of Carthage were 
invaded by the Romans, a similar picture is given by Polyb- 
ius of the wealth, elegance, and cultivation which every- 
where adorned them. On that occasion, a number of splen- 
did villas were destroyed, an immense booty was obtained in 
cattle, and above 20,000 slaves were carried away. The 
same historian relates, that at the period now mentioned, the 
better class of the people drew their private income from 
their own estates ; the public revenue was derived from the 
provinces. X 

We have already alluded to the land-trade of Carthage, 
which, by means of caravans, she appears to have carried far 
into the South, the East, and the West. ^lerodotus, whose 
knowledge of ancient Africa was much more complete and 
accurate than hasty critics are wont to imagine, has traced 
with much precision the routes of the merchant-travel- 
lers from the neighbourhood of the Syrtis to Fezzan, Si* 

* Plin. Hist. Nat., lib. xviii., c. 3. 
f Diod. Sicul., lib. ix., c. 26, &c. 
i Polyb., lib. i., c. 5, and lib. ii., c. 3, 4, 5. 
F 



62 CONSTITUTION, COMMERCE, ETC. 



wah or Ammonium, Thebes, the regions of the Joliba, and 
even the borders of the western desert. No difficulties, how- 
ever great, no dangers, however appalling, can check the ava- 
rice or damp the courage of man, when wealth, conquest, or 
revenge, becomes the motive of his actions. Gold, precious 
stones, drugs, spices, dates, salt, and slaves, were the objects 
upon which the Phoenician colonists and their Libyan sub- 
jects placed the greatest value, and to obtain which they con- 
sented to undergo the most painful toils, and encounter the 
most frightful hazards that a wilderness, many hundred miles 
in extent, parched by the sun, disturbed by moving sands, 
and destitute of water, could present to the imagination. 
By these means, however — her colonies, her jieets, and her 
internal commerce — Carthage became one of the most pow- 
erful commonwealths of ancient times ; and by the fame 
which she acquired as the patron of discovery and navigation, 
by her gallant struggle with Rome, the victories of her gen- 
erals, and their conquests in Italy, Gaul, and Spain, she has 
conferred upon the Barbary States a degree of renown which 
could not otherwise have fallen to their lot. 

The rulers of Carthage have been blamed for yielding to 
the temptation of engaging in war. It has been imagined 
that, had they followed the example of Tyre, their greatness 
would never have been impaired, nor their stability menaced ; 
inasmuch as all nations would have shown a readiness to 
trade with her, if she had not avowed an intention to con- 
quer a settlement in every country where her crews were 
permitted to land. Experience has proved, however, that an 
extensive foreign commerce cannot be maintained without 
territorial possessions. The colonies of England, Holland, 
and France, in the remotest parts of the globe, seem to 
establish the fact, that the soldier, if he do not precede, will 
ever follow closely in the footsteps of the merchant. 

The fate of this celebrated republic, however, was hasten- 
ed, not so much by her warlike propensities and desire of 
conquest, as by the necessity which was imposed upon her of 
employing foreign mercenaries to fight her battles. She en- 
listed, in Africa, Spain, and Gaul, troops who could have no 
sincere interest in her prosperity or reputation, and who, 
upon the slightest reverse of fortune, were ready to take part 
with her enemies, and even to draw the sword under their 
banners. The expense, too, incident to protracted wars, by 



OF THE ANCIENT BARBARY STATES, 



63 



exhausting her ordinary resources, compelled her to lay op- 
pressive taxes on her subjects, and more especially on her 
African dependances ; who, it is said, were on some occa- 
sions obliged to surrender, in the form of tribute, not less 
than half the produce of their lands. Again, by employing 
in the field her Numidian allies, the fearless horsemen of the 
Sahara, she taught them to render their courage formidable, 
by adding to it the valuable qualities of discipline and subor- 
dination ; and accordingly, when the final contest arose, the 
Romans found most sufficient auxiliaries in the squadrons of 
Masinissa, Syphax, and Juba, who were eager to avenge on 
the proud republic the injuries which their countrymen had 
formerly sustained at the hands of the Phoenician settlers. 
The fall of Carthage has, moreover, been ascribed to that 
neglect of her maritime forces which was manifested during 
the last Punic war. When Scipio crossed from Sicily to Af- 
rica, there was not a fleet to oppose him. But the principal 
cause of her decline and ultimate overthrow was the fierce 
hostility of rival factions within her own walls. Two great 
parties, arrayed the one against the other, indulged their mu~ 
tual enmity while the legions were at her gates : tyranny on 
the one hand was met by turbulence on the other ; and each 
section of the commonwealth, with the language of patriotism 
in their mouths, were more pleased to see their country per- 
ish than to behold the ascendency of their political antago- 
nists. In the fate of Carthage was exemplified the usual 
result of a popular government and of civic contention : the 
voice of clamour is silenced only by the shouts of a triumph- 
ant foe, who puts an end to the rivalry of parties by treading 
all distinctions under foot. 

The late Emperor of France was wont to compare the 
English people to the Carthaginians; both being distinguish- 
ed by their success in commerce, their command of the sea, 
and their numerous colonies : And, for reasons which ap- 
peared satisfactory to his penetrating mind, he predicted that 
a similar fate, originating in similar causes, would at no dis- 
tant period overtake his great rival. Let us hope that the 
voice of history will not be heard in vain ; and that the er- 
rors of past ages will impress modern states with the feelings 
of wisdom and caution. 



64 



MODERN HISTORY OP 



CHAPTER III. 

Modern History of the Barbary States. 

Time when the Barbary States assumed an independent Exist 
ence — The Libyans first inhabited Northern Africa — Influence 
of Phoenician Colonies — Ancient and Modern Divisions of the 
Country— Extent of Roman Conquests — Revival of Carthage 
— Rebuilt from its own Ruins — Site and description of it — 
Remains of former Magnificence — Mercenary Conduct of Ro- 
manus, Count of Africa — Sufferings of the Tripolitans— Usur- 
pation of Firmus — Victories of Theodosius — Death of Firmus 
— Insurrection under Gildo — Wisdom and Bravery of Stilicho 
— Death of Gildo — Rebellion of Heraclian — Error of Bonifa- 
cius — He invites the Vandals — Progress of Genseric, their 
General — Death of Bonifacius — Continued Success of the 
Vandals — Fall of Carthage — Severe Sufferings of the Inhabi- 
tants — Policy of Genseric — He creates a Navy — Sacks Rome 
— Prosecutes a Maritime War — Marjorian meditates the Inva- 
sion of Africa— His Fleet is destroyed by Fire — Attempt of Ba- 
silicus — Loss of his Ships — Death of Genseric — Accession of 
Justinian — Usurpation of Gelimer in Africa — Belisarius takes 
the Command there — Victory over Gelimer — He reduces Car- 
thage—Conquest of Africa — Surrender of Gelimer — Decay of 
the Vandal Power — Africa gradually relapses into Barbarism 
— Commerce and Agriculture languish — Arrival of the Sara- 
cens — Conduct of the Prefect Gregory — Valour of Akbah — 
Dissension among the Caliphs — Akbah is slain — Conduct and 
Fate of Zobeir — Foundation of Kairwan — Hassan retakes 
Carthage — The Greek Imperialists defeated, and finally leave 
the Country — The Moors contend for the Sovereignty — Queen 
Cahina — Her Success and Defeat — Union of the Moors and 
Mohammedan Arabs — Revolt of Ibrahim — Dynasty of the Ag- 
labites — Other Dynasties founded by Rostam and Edris — Rise 
of the Fatimites— Of the Zeirites — Emigration of Arabs from 
the Red Sea — The Almohades and Almoravides. 

As it was not till about the time when the ascendency of 
the Turks was established in the Eastern Empire, that the 
modern kingdoms of Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, 
claimed the notice of the geographer or historian as separate, 
and in some degree independent governments, the annals of 
Northern Africa, down to the end of the fifteenth century, 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



65 



will be most conveniently presented under one head, and as 
applicable to the whole country which stretches from Cyrene 
to the Western Ocean. It has been already remarked, that 
this region, if we follow the line of the coast, may be estima- 
ted at not less than 2,000 miles ; though its breadth, confined 
between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, does not exceed 
150, even where the sandy border is farthest removed. 




Berbers. 

Till the arrival of the Phoenicians, that fertile colony was 
inhabited by the Libyans, accounted by ancient writers 
among the most savage of mankind — a race of wandering 
shepherds, who, in our times, are more familiarly known by 
the appellation of Berbers, from which the whole maritime 
district has taken its name. The proximity of the Tyrian 
settlement produced, to some extent, on their character and 
habits, those changes which a civilized people hardly ever 



66 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



fail to accomplish among rude tribes, strangers to reflection, 
and to all the artificial enjoyments of life. But, even at the 
present day, the descendants of those simple Nomades occu- 
py a prominent station in the land of their fathers ; and are, 
it is thought, easily distinguishable from the Moors, as well 
as from those other families of later origin, whose lineage be- 
longs to the central parts of Asia or even of Europe. The 
preceding representation exhibits the features and dress of 
these children of the Desert, who, it will be observed, bear 
no slight resemblance to the inhabitants of Southern Arabia, 
with whom their oldest tradition connects them. 

It has appeared that, under the immediate jurisdiction of 
Carthage, the neighbouring land became the centre of com- 
merce and of empire ; though the remains of that renowned 
commonwealth must now be sought in the disorderly states 
of Tripoli and Tunis. The Numidia, which was the object 
of contention between Jugurtha and Masinissa, is at present 
subject to the military government of Algiers ; though a large 
portion of that kingdom was withdrawn in the reign of Au- 
gustus, and erected into a proconsular province, under the 
title of Mauritania Caesariensis. The true country of the 
Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, 
was denominated Tingitana, is placed in our maps as the 
sovereignty of Fez. The Romans extended their sway as 
far as the ocean, comprehending Sallee, once so infamous for 
its piracies ; and Mequinez, a residence of the Emperor of 
Morocco, may still be identified as one of their foundations. 

Under the fostering care of the imperial government, more 
especially as administered by Augustus, the first of its sov- 
ereigns, Carthage emerged from its ruins, and became once 
more the capital of Africa Propria, the territory to which 
the senate thought it meet to restrict this designation. In 
truth, if a judgment may be formed from the relics which 
still remain, it must be admitted that the principal grandeur 
of the new city was bestowed upon it, at a period subsequent 
to the age of the beneficent ruler just named, and when ar- 
chitectural taste had already somewhat declined. Several of 
the mutilated statues, we are told, are in the worst style of 
the Lower Empire. There are, notwithstanding, many proofs 
that the birthplace of Hannibal must have been occupied soon 
after its first and violent destruction ; seyeral of the walls and 
even of the towers being composed of ancient fragments con- 



THE BAB.BAB.Y STATES. 



67 



fusedly piled together. Most of the arcades and public build- 
ings, too, appear to have been made up of massy blocks of 
sandstone and conglomerate, disposed in layers, without ce- 
ment, or with a species of it which has almost entirely dis- 
solved. The greatest care seems to have been lavished 
upon the temples. These edifices were constructed in a 
style of the utmost magnificence, and adorned with immense 
columns of granite and marble ; the shafts of which, general- 
ly speaking, consisted of a single piece. 

Even here, however, there are indications that the Roman 
Carthage was indebted for some of its decorations to the Car- 
thage founded by the Phoenicians. Many of the pillars now 
found are of the Corinthian order, and belong, of course, to 
an improved epoch of the art : but among them are also seen 
enormous masses of a different description, displaying capi- 
tate and triglyphs, which render it extremely probable that a 
structure of Doric architecture had previously occupied the 
site at present covered with their common ruins. The more 
modern city, at all events, must have been encompassed with 
strong walls of solid masonry, furnished with magnificent 
gates, and ornamented with spacious porticoes. It was divi- 
ded, too, from its principal suburb on the east by a river, the 
mouth of which, forming an extensive basin, was called the 
" Cothon," defended at its narrow entrance by two strong 
fortifications, connected with which were a couple of moles, 
still seen stretching out under the water. On the banks of 
this stream, the bed of which continues to be occupied by a 
rivulet, are the remains of various aqueducts, and some 
large reservoirs in excellent preservation. Between the prin- 
cipal cisterns and a torrent which passes to the westward of 
Leptis, some mounds have been constructed across the plain, 
by means of which the winter rains were conveyed for the 
use of the city. On the eastern bank of the river already 
mentioned are the vestiges of a galley-port and of numerous 
baths, together with a circus richly ornamented with obelisks 
and columns. The whole plain, indeed, from the Margib 
Hills to the Cinyphus, presents unequivocal proofs of great 
opulence and a dense population.* 

* Beechey, p. 74. Leo Africanus remarks, " Notissimum hoc 
atque antiquissisimum oppiduma quodampopulo extructum fuit 
qui ex Syria hue venerat. Alii vero a Regina quadam conditum 



68 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



These fragments of ancient magnificence leave no doubt 
as to the care bestowed by the Romans upon the capital of 
their Africa, however difficult it may be to determine the 
proportion of them which belongs to a remoter period. Nor 
can it be necessary to remark that the second Carthage, 
with the provinces subjected to its jurisdiction, shared largely 
in those vicissitudes and political commotions which shook 
the empire itself, both before and after the reign of Constan- 
tine. At one time three hundred cities are said to have ac- 
knowledged her authority, after she had risen with new 
splendour from her ashes, and when she had once more ac- 
quired, as a provincial metropolis, all the advantages which 
can be separated from independent sovereignty.* 

The first calamities which Roman Africa endured, arose 
from the ferocious character of her neighbours, and the ava- 
rice of those who were sent by the imperial court to exercise 
the government. In the reign of Valentinian, about the mid- 
dle of the fourth century, the military command was in- 
trusted to a chief whose sordid views were the leading mo- 
tives of his conduct, and who, on most occasions, acted'a3 
if he had been the enemy of the province, and the friend of 
the barbarians by whom it was assailed. The three flourish- 
ing cities of Oea, Leptis, and Sabrata, which, under the 
name of Tripolis, had long constituted a federal union, were 
obliged, for the first time, to shut their gates in order to pro- 
tect the lives and property of their inhabitants from the sav- 
ages of the Desert. After much suffering, the civic rulers 
applied to Romanus, entitled the Count of Africa, entreating 
him to march to their relief, and promising to raise, without 
delay, the supplies of money and camels which he had made 
the condition of their obtaining his protection. 

But the mercenary general, hoping that the fears of the 
Tripolitans would hasten their gifts, delayed his assistance till 
many of the citizens were surprised and massacred, their 
villages burnt, their suburbs plundered, and the vines and 
fruit-trees of their fine territory rooted up or consumed with 

malunt. — Quare nihil est in prassentia quod de hujus conditori- 
bus affirmem ; nam prseterquam quod varie Afri atque historio- 
graphi inter se dissentiant, nemo est illorum qui inde aliquid 
scriptum reliquerit nisi post Romani imperii decrementum. — P. 
553, edit. 1632. 
* Strab. Geog., lib. xvii 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



69 



fire. A deputation to Rome was instantly resolved upon by 
the assembly of the three cities, the members of which were 
instructed to inform Valentinian of their deplorable condition, 
and, at the same time, to convey to his ears the well-founded 
complaint, that they were ruined by the enemy, and betrayed 
by his lieutenant. The count, however, contrived to anti- 
cipate this intelligence, which must have endangered his 
command and perhaps his life, and to impress upon the minds 
of the 'imperial council, that the murmurs against him had no 
other foundation than the cowardice or disaffection of the 
provincialists. An investigation was commanded by the 
emperor, who appears to have been animated with a sincere 
desire to discover the truth, and to pronounce an award ac- 
cording to justice. But Romanus experienced as little dif- 
ficulty in deceiving or corrupting the commissioners, as he 
had to encounter in his attempts upon the honesty of the 
supreme government. The charge against him was declared 
to be false ; the information lodged by the people of Tripolis 
was interpreted as the proof of a conspiracy ; and orders 
were given to prosecute the authors of it as traitors to their 
lawful sovereign. The inquiries were managed with so 
much dexterity, that the citizens of Leptis, who had sus- 
tained a siege of eight days, were compelled to contradict 
the truth of their own decrees, and to censure the behaviour 
of their own deputies. A sentence, sanctioned by Valenti- 
nian, condemned the president of the Tripolitan council to 
death ; and, accordingly, this distinguished person, as well 
as four others of similar rank, was publicly executed, as 
accomplice in an imaginary treason.* 

This cruel and unjust decision, by showing the subjects of 
the Roman colony that they were excluded from the benefits 
of an equal government, diminished whatever affection or 
confidence they might entertain towards the masters of Africa. 
An occurrence soon took place, which exposed their alle- 
giance to a severe test. Firmus, the son of Nabal, a Moor- 
ish prince, had forced his way to the occupation of his bar- 
barian sovereignty by destroying the life of a brother, whose 
birth gave him a better claim, and who, moreover, enjoyed 
the patronage of the Romans. Imitating the conduct of 
Jugurtha, this usurper had recourse at once to policy and 



* Ammian. Marcell., lib. xviii., c. 6. 



70 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



arms ; but finding the former unavailing, and that the count 
was about to prove an inexorable enemy, he took the field at 
the head of a powerful body of troops, and bade defiance to 
his resentment. The authority of Firmus was soon estab- 
lished in all the provinces of Nnmidia and Mauritania ; while 
the indiscriminating fury with which he pursued his con- 
quests along the shores of the Mediterranean, compelled or 
induced many of the provincialists to join his standard.* 

Romanus, whose talents were only displayed in the arts of 
oppression and fraud, found himself unequal to oppose the 
victorious insurgents, who already possessed, as confederates 
or vassals, nearly all the towns between Caesarea and the 
ocean. Africa, accordingly, must have been severed from 
the empire, had not Theodosius been sent to restore its 
affairs, and to repel the ravages of the Moors. Firmus, 
though his arms and treasures were still undiminished, gave 
way to despair as soon as he learned that a commander so 
renowned had landed on the coast. At first, he had recourse 
to an apparent submission, with a view to deceive the vigil- 
ance of his opponent ; and he even attempted to corrupt the 
soldiers whom he dared not to encounter in the field. The 
imperial lieutenant, who was not ignorant of the character of 
the prince with whom he condescended to negotiate, listened 
to his expressions of repentance and promises of fidelity ; 
but, at the same time, kept a watchful eye over his proceed- 
ings, and was busy in making preparations for the war in 
which he was aware that all their professions of mutual 
friendship must ultimately terminate. Nor was it long be- 
fore these suspicions were -realized. A conspiracy, which 
aimed at the life of Theodosius, was detected, and involved 
in capital punishment some of the principal adherents of the 
Mauritanian chief, although he himself, who was ready to 
profit by their success, effected his escape into his native do- 
minions, and left them to their fate. But the Roman general 
having determined that his life also should pay the penalty 
of his rashness, in presuming to attack the subjects of the 
empire, pursued him into the fastnesses of Mount Atlas, and 
finally succeeded in making him prisoner. Firmus, however, 
resolved to disappoint the triumph of his adversary, who had 
jneant to make him a public example ; and, adopting the 



* Ammian. Marcell., lib. xxix., c, 5. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



71 



maxims of his age and country as to the right of the human 
being to shorten or protract his own existence, relieved him- 
self from shame by committing suicide. 

a. d. 386. Bat the death of this tyrant did not secure 
permanent tranquillity to the African provinces. Gildo, his 
brother, had been allowed to retain the vast possessions 
which had been forfeited by treason ; and as his fidelity and 
services to the empire seemed to merit a still higher reward, 
j he was raised to the dignity of a count, and invested with the 
command of the Roman territory. As, however, his power 
increased, his insolence and cruelty became daily more in- 
tolerable : and, profiting by the dissensions which preceded 
the accession of Theodosius to the throne, he hesitated not 
to announce himself the sovereign of Africa. During twelve 
years, the country groaned under the domination of an up- 
start, who seemed at once to disregard his native land, and 
to encourage the factions by which it was divided. At 
length, when Arcadius was elevated to the government of 
the East, the count, who had promised to respect the au- 
thority of Honorius, his rightful sovereign, chose to transfer 
to the former his allegiance and aid, which the ministers of 
that weak prince advised him to accept. But at this impor- 
tant crisis the councils of the West were directed by Stilicho, 
a brave soldier and experienced statesman, who prevailed 
upon the senate to denounce Gildo as a rebel and public 
enemy. Troops were assembled and transports were pre- 
pared to carry the revenge of the republic against the un- 
grateful Moor, to strip him of the honours which he had 
abused, and to punish the numerous crimes laid to his charge. 
The command of a small army of veterans was confided to 
Mascezel, another son of the house of Nabal, who, being 
obliged to fly from the ferocious jealousy of his brother, had 
sought refuge in Italy, where he heard of the inhuman mas- 
sacre of his wife and children, whom he was compelled to 
leave behind.* 

a. d. 398. Gildo, who soon received notice of the prep- 
arations which were making against him, exerted his utmost 
activity and means to collect an army that might successfully 
repel the meditated invasion. He endeavoured, by the most 
profuse liberality, to secure the attachment of the regular 



* Claudian. de Bell. Gild., v. 389, &c. Orosius, lib. vii., c. 3d. 



72 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



troops who had joined in his revolt ; while he drew from the 
deserts of Getulia and the valleys of Atlas a large body of 
natives who were accustomed to regard him as their hered- 
itary prince. Seeing around him a host amounting, it is 
said, to 70,000 men, he boasted that his cavalry would tram- 
ple under their horses' feet the few cohorts which accom- 
panied his brother, or drive them back into the sea. But the 
issue of the first battle disappointed all his hopes; the sense 
of duty returned to the legionary soldiers on whom he chiefly 
relied ; and his Numidians, perceiving themselves deserted 
by their confederates, fled in irretrievable confusion. The 
vanquished despot threw himself into a ship and attempted 
to escape into Greece ; but the wind proving contrary, the 
mariners were under the necessity of returning to the 
African shore, where he was immediately seized and com- 
mitted to a dungeon. Aware of the insult and pains which 
awaited him, should he be delivered either to Mascezel or 
the Romans, he imitated the example of Firmus, and with 
his own hands put an end to his life.* 

a. d. 413. But Africa, at the troubled period now under 
our consideration, did not long enjoy the blessing of peace 
procured for it by the wise measures of Stilicho. The con- 
sternation occasioned by the invasion of the Goths had hardly 
passed away, when Heraclian, who presided over that prov- 
ince, displayed the standard of rebellion and assumed the 
title of emperor. Collecting a formidable army, which he 
conveyed across the Mediterranean in 3,000 boats, he landed 
near the mouth of the Tiber, with the intention of proceeding 
to Rome ; but, being met on the way by one of the imperial 
commanders at the head of an inferior force, he sustained a 
severe defeat, which compelled him to relinquish his hazard- 
ous enterprise. Upon returning to Carthage, he found that 
the whole country, disdaining his pretensions to a dignity to 
which his talents were unequal, had returned to their alle- 
giance. He soon discovered, too, that the punishment of 
unsuccessful treason awaited him : he was condemned to be 
beheaded, and his fortune, amounting to nearly 200,000/. of 
our money, was confiscated for the use of the public, or con- 
ferred upon his conqueror, f 



* Zosimus, lib. v. Claudian, de Cons. Stilich., v. 357. 

t Oros., lib. vii., c. 42. Zosim.,lib. vi. Sozomen., lib. ix., c. 13 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



73 



A. D. 427. The time, however, was now fast approaching 
when the African provinces were to be lost to ihe Roman 
empire. Under the administration of Placidia, who directed 
the government of the West in the name of her son, Valen- 
tinian the Third, the safety of the commonwealth was sacri- 
ficed to the jealousy of two chiefs, iEtius and Bonifacius. 
The latter, whose conduct had been misrepresented at court, 
was recalled from his command ; when, apprehensive that his 
life was in danger, he resolved upon the most desperate meas- 
ures, in order to defeat the designs of his enemies. Not 
satisfied with arming the provincials and declaring his inde- 
pendence, he invited from Spain the aid of the Vandals, who, 
led by their king, the sanguinary Genseric, crossed the 
Straits and established their camp in Mauritania. His fol- 
lowers, who did not at first exceed 50,000, received a rapid 
augmentation of very active allies. The Moors, who had 
endured rather than acknowledged the sovereignty of Rome, 
seized with eagerness an occasion so favourable for abjuring 
it, as well as for gratifying their revenge on their ancient 
oppressors. Thousands of them issued from the neighbour- 
hood of the Sahara, and the wilds of the mountain-range by 
which its northern limits are denned ; and, regardless of 
future consequences as they might affect their native govern- 
ments, placed themselves under the banners of the warlike 
prince who had vowed hostility to their enemies. An ac- 
cession to his numbers was also obtained from the heretical 
Donatists, who had been recently expelled from the Catholic 
church, and subjected to severities little in harmony with the 
mild spirit of the Gospel. To these persecuted fanatics, 
Genseric appeared in the light of a powerful deliverer, from 
whose zeal, not less opposed than their own to the orthodox 
faith, they might reasonably expect a repeal of those hateful 
edicts of which they had been made the victims. It admits 
not of any doubt, that the co-operation of these dissentients 
from the established creed contributed materially to the con- 
quest of Africa ; and that the loss of the most important 
province of the Western Empire was at least accelerated by 
the intolerant spirit which then prevailed among the domi- 
nant sect of Christians.* 

* Chronicles of Prosper and Idatius, quoted by Gibbon, chap- 
ter xxxiii. 

G 



74 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



a. d. 430. No sooner had Bonifacius discovered the fraud 
of his rival, than he deeply regretted the precipitance of 
which he had been 'guilty in inviting the alliance of the bar- 
barians. But amid the confusion and distress to which the 
province was already reduced, his repentance was unavailing ; 
for, although Carthage and certain other Roman garrisons 
professed their readiness to obey the orders of Valentinian, 
the country at large was under the control of the Vandals, 
who could not be prevailed upon to relinquish their prey. 
Assembling the small band of veterans who still adhered to 
his standard, and such provincial troops as seemed worthy 
of his confidence, he resolved to make one effort to retrieve 
the bad effects of his error, by attacking Genseric in the field. 
A battle was fought, in which, though the count displayed 
equal courage and skill, he was worsted with considerable 
loss, and compelled to leave his defenceless territory to the 
rage of a savage conqueror. 

The misery inflicted upon Northern Africa by the soldiers, 
and more especially by the native allies, of this celebrated 
leader, has been described in vivid colours by several writers, 
both ecclesiastical and civil. Seven fruitful provinces, it is 
said, were destroyed by these invaders. Wherever they met 
resistance, they put all to the sword ; when a city was taken, 
its defenders were buried in its ruins ; and where hidden 
wealth was suspected, torture was applied, without remorse, 
to both sexes and all ages. They took pleasure in effacing 
every mark of civilization and improvement ; rooting up 
trees, whether planted for use or for ornament, pulling down 
churches, and even slaughtering the inhabitants in order that 
their unburied bodies might infect the air, and spread still 
farther the ravages of mortality. It may well be believed, 
that the generous mind of Bonifacius was painfully distressed 
by beholding the ruin which he had occasioned, the rapid 
progress of which he was totally unable to repress. After 
the loss of the battle already mentioned, he retired into Hippo 
Regius, now called Bona, where he was instantly besieged 
by Genseric, who regarded him as the only obstacle to the 
fulfilment of all his wishes relative to Africa.* 

* Marmol. L'Afrique, tome ii., p. 434. He tells us that the 
Bona of modern geographers was formerly named Hippo : " On 
la nommoit autrefois Hippone, qui est sur la coste de la met 
Mediterranee au golfe de Numidie." 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



75 



The Vandals did not display, in the reduction of strong- 
holds, the same military qualities which secured to them so 
many victories in the open plain ; and hence, fourteen months 
were spent before any material impression was made on the 
walls or resources of Hippo. The wants of the garrison 
were supplied by sea; the sick were refreshed, and the 
wounded removed ; while the besiegers, who relied exclu- 
sively upon the surrounding country for provisions, were 
occasionally compelled by the pressure of famine to relinquish 
their attempt. At length, a powerful army, composed as 
well of the troops of the East as of the West, debarked on 
the coast, with orders not only to relieve the count from the 
disgrace of a protracted blockade, but also to drive the bar- 
barians from the province. 

Bonifacius, finding himself at the head of a force at once 
so numerous and well appointed, resolved to give battle to 
his former ally ; and with this intention he marched out 
against him into the neighbouring fields, where he made 
arrangements for a decisive conflict. The combatants met 
with equal eagerness — the one to avenge the injuries which 
had been inflicted upon the property and reputation of the 
empire, the other to complete the subjugation of a country 
which he was determined to add to his numerous conquests. 
On this occasion, as well as on the former, the fortune of 
war declared in favour of the Vandals ; the legions of Rome 
and the squadrons who followed Aspar from the shores of 
the Bosphorus, were scattered by the impetuous onset of the 
rude warriors of the North ; and the Italian general, who no 
longer put any confidence in arms, fled to the ships with the 
remainder of his troops. It may not be unseasonable to 
remark, that the imperial lieutenant who, to fortify his private 
interests, invited a furious enemy into his government, fell in 
a skirmish with JEtius, who had originally poisoned his mind 
with suspicion, and drawn upon him the frown of the court.* 

a. d. 431. After this distinguished success, the progress 
of the Vandals was more rapid and destructive than ever. 
But, as is usual in all such cases, Genseric soon discovered 
that the distracted state of the country, and the multitude 
of factions, whence he had derived so much advantage in his 
struggle with the Romans, would prevent him from consolida- 

* Procopius De Bell Varjdal., lib. i., c, 3. 



76 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



ting his power as sovereign of Northern Africa. Influenced 
by such considerations, he entered into a treaty with the 
emperor, whereby he bound himself to cede that extensive 
region which constitutes the modern kingdoms of Morocco 
and Algiers, and was known to ancient history under the 
denomination of the Three Mauritanias. He perceived, in 
fact, that without a large maritime force he could not defend 
the whole line of coast extending from the Atlantic Ocean 
to the remotest bounds of Tripoiis ; and, accordingly, acting 
npon the most obvious political motives, he consented to re- 
linquish a territory which it would have proved almost im* 
possible for him to retain. 

But his apparent moderation was only meant as a cloak to 
conceal his ambitious designs. He had fixed his eyes on 
Carthage, the Rome, as it was called, of the African king- 
doms ; and, while he permitted the subjects of Valentinian 
to occupy the western deserts, be pushed on with the deter- 
mination to make himself master of the provincial capital. 
This celebrated city appears to have been taken by surprise ; 
at least no details of siege or battle are supplied by the 
historians who record its fall ; though there is in their state- 
ments the most perfect agreement as to the date of its over- 
throw, and the complete desolation by which it was accom- 
panied. In the year 439, being nearly six centuries after its 
destruction by Publius Emilianus Scipio, the colony and town 
of Dido became the booty of ignorant soldiers, whose maxim 
it was to live by their swords.* 

The King of the Vandals, whatever may have been his 
private wishes, could not save from pillage the wealthy me- 
tropolis which had just fallen into his hands. After per- 
mitting his troops to enjoy the usual freedoms consequent 
upon a successful assault, he issued an edict, commanding all 
persons to deliver into the hands of certain officers their 
gold, silver, jewels, and other valuable effects ; and, at the 
same time, giving an assurance, that the slightest attempt to 
conceal any part of their property w T ould be punished with 
death, as an act of treason against the state. The lands, 
also, were measured with suitable care, that they might be 
divided among the triumphant warriors according to their 
respective rank or merits ; Genseric reserving for his personal 



* Procopius De Bell. Vandal., lib. i., c. 5. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



77 



share the fertile domain of Byzacium, with the adjacent ter- 
ritory of Numidia and Getulia. It is impossible to measure 
the losses, sufferings, and privations, which the higher class 
of citizens were doomed to endure under the military despotism 
now imposed upon them by their conquerors. The Christian 
writers of that age, who witnessed the misery which they 
could not relieve, have deplored in eloquent terms the cruel 
persecutions directed against their orthodox brethren by the 
agents of the Arian prince. Regardless, or ignorant, per- 
haps, of the peculiar tenets which marked his creed, this 
tyrant viewed mere difference of opinion as a proof of in- 
subordination, and as indicating that love of liberty which, 
on a favourable occasion, might instigate those who cherished 
it to undermine his regal power, or dispute his prerogative. 
His severities and intolerance filled Italy and even the 
Eastern Empire with exiles, who had no resource but the 
compassion of the public ; and, although there may be some 
exaggeration in the narratives through which the main facts 
have reached our times, the most careless reader cannot fail 
to perceive that the triumphs of Genseric imposed a train 
of frightful calamities on the finest provinces of Northern 
Africa. 

Actuated by the desire to render his conquest permanent, 
and also, perhaps, to extend its limits, the barbarian prince 
turned his attention to the equipment of a fleet. He had 
acquired, indeed, a rich and fertile territory ; but he was 
aware that, as long as the Romans could command the Medi- 
terranean, he must be constantly liable to a sudden attack, 
directed at pleasure against any part of his extensive coast. 
His resolution to create a naval power, in every point of view 
so essential to his security, was pursued with a steady per- 
severance. In the glens of Mount Atlas he found an inex- 
haustible supply of timber ; and the inhabitants of the sea- 
port-towns which he had lately reduced were acquainted 
with the art of shipbuilding. Nor was it long before a for- 
midable armament was seen to issue from his harbours, pre- 
pared not only to protect their own shores, but even to carry 
terror to those of their enemy. Having no inducement tq 
seek new lands or additional subjects among the tribes of the 
Desert, Genseric saw the possibility of increasing his treas- 
ures as well as his reputation by making a descent on Italy 
itself. The death of Valentinian, which paralyzed the. 
G2 



78 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



Roman government, seemed to secure for his attempt the 
certainty of success ; and accordingly, after due preparation, 
he boldly wafted an army of Vandals to the mouth of the 
Tiber. 

a. d. 455. It is no part of our task to describe the sack- 
ing of Rome, nor to examine into the motives which led to 
that memorable catastrophe. The pillage, we are assured, 
lasted fourteen days and as many nights ; and all that could 
be found of public or private wealth was eagerly conveyed to 
the ships of Genseric. Among the spoils, the splendid relics 
of two sanctuaries, or rather of two religions, exhibited an 
instructive example of the uncertainty of earthly things. 
Though paganism had been abolished, the statues of the 
gods and heroes w r ere still respected ; and the curious roof 
of gilt bronze which had once adorned the Capitol was 
reserved for the hands of this rapacious invader. The holy 
instruments of the Jewish worship — the golden table, and 
the candlestick with seven branches, originally framed ac- 
cording to the particular instructions of God himself, had 
been ostentatiously displayed to the Roman people in the 
triumph of Titus. They were afterward deposited in the 
Temple of Peace ; and at the end of 400 years, the plunder 
of Jerusalem was transferred from Rome to Carthage by the 
chief of a marauding army, who derived their origin from 
the shores of the Baltic* 

Genseric, although he gained an easy victory over the 
metropolis of the West, was too well acquainted with the 
resources which still remained to the empire to attempt a 
permanent conquest. He accordingly returned to Africa 
loaded with treasure, and accompanied by thousands of cap- 
tives, comprehending some eminent individuals of both sexes, 
whom he distributed among his followers. 

The success which had crowned the invasion of Italy 
could hardly fail to induce a repetition ; and hence, about 
seven years later, a large fleet of Moors and Vandals ap- 
proached the coast of Campania, where the crews, encounter- 
ing little resistance, gratified their avarice and cruelty at the 
expense of the unprotected inhabitants. But, while thus 

* Sidonius Panegyr. Avit., p. 441, &c. Procop. De Bell 
Vandal., lib. i., c. 4, &c. Victor Vitens. De Persecut. Vandal, 
lib. i, c. 8. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



79 



employed, they were attacked by the imperial troops, who, 
ofter great slaughter, chased them to their ships — a check 
which, though it rendered them more cautious in their move- 
ments, did not deter the leaders from renewing their depre- 
dations on the least guarded parts of the extended shore. 

It therefore became necessary for the safety of the com- 
monwealth to attack the pirates in their own settlements, and 
if possible to root out that armed confederacy, which, despi- 
sing industry and the arts, taught the people to make a trade 
of war, and live on plunder. Marjorian, who had now as- 
cended the throne, possessed talents and spirit equal to such 
an enterprise ; but he found not in the Roman youth a corre- 
sponding patriotism, and was obliged to recruit his legions 
among the barbarians who had spread themselves over Ger- 
many and along the banks of the Danube. Never was the 
sceptre of Genseric in greater hazard than when the emperor 
collected in the Bay of Carthagena a fleet of more than 300 
large ships, with the usual proportion of transports and 
smaller vessels, and was prepared to throw into his kingdom 
a host of warriors not less savage than those with whom 
they were about to engage. But treason saved the Vandajs 
from a sanguinary invasion, and disappointed all the hopes 
of Marjorian. Guided by secret emissaries, the African 
admiral surprised the flotilla as it lay on the Spanish coast ; 
and, setting it on fire, reduced the greater part to ashes and 
dispersed the remainder.* 

Among the prisoners brought to Carthage after the fall of 
Rome was Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian, whose eldest 
daughter became the wife of Hunneric, the heir of the Van- 
dal monarch. This connexion with the imperial family con- 
veyed to the aged warrior a claim on Rome, which seemed 
to justify his incessant inroads upon its territory. In the 
spring of each year he equipped a formidable squadron in the 
most convenient ports, and conducted his designs with so 
much secrecy, that no one on board knew the destination of 
the ships until they had been some time at sea. " Leave 
the determination to the winds," replied the barbarian to his 
pilot, who asked whither he should steer ; " they will con- 
duct us to the guilty coast whose inhabitants have provoked 
the justice of Heaven." But on all occasions, Genseric, 



* Idatius, as quoted by Gibbon, c. xxxvi. 



80 



MODERN HISTORY OP 



whose plans were regulated on a fixed principle, appeared to 
regard the possession of wealth as the most infallible token 
of the divine displeasure ; for he never failed to direct his 
prows against those devoted shores where fertility and com- 
mercial riches promised the most abundant pillage. 

a. d. 468. At length the fears or resentment of the East- 
ern Empire gave birth to the resolution of delivering Italy 
and the Mediterranean from the grievous scourge to which 
they had been so long subjected by the new masters of the 
Barbary States. The armament fitted out by Leo, which 
sailed from Constantinople to Africa, is described as consist- 
ing of more than 1,100 vessels, having on board about 100,000 
men. Basilicus, to whom the direction of the whole was 
confided, gained at first some advantages over his wily ad- 
versary, which supplied to the latter a sufficient apology for 
proposing a negotiation ; while the imperial lieutenant, as if 
he had resolved to walk openly into the snare which was 
spread before him, suspended his operations and listened to 
terms. Daring the truce which ensued, Genseric had re- 
course to his usual expedient ; he charged some of his largest 
ships with combustibles, and sending them, amid the dark- 
ness of night, into the crowded lines of the enemy, completed 
their destruction, and thereby put an end to the campaign 
which had for its object the extinction of his kingdom. He 
again became undisputed master of the sea, and had the sat- 
isfaction to terminate his reign without being any more dis- 
turbed by the Romans, either of the East or the West.* 

a. d. 533. The weakness of the government in Italy was 
favourable to the growing power of the Vandals, who, during 
the lapse of more than half a century, encountered no foe by 
land or by water to whom they were not superior. But the 
accession of Justinian to the throne of the whole empire, of 
which the undivided authority had been conveyed to the city 
of Constantine, led to new efforts for the recovery of Africa, 
now so long severed from the imperial dominions. The scep- 
tre of Genseric had already passed through his son Hunneric 
to his grandson Hilderic, who, being of a mild disposition 
and proving unfortunate in war, was dethroned by Gelimer, a 
chief possessing popular qualities and a high military reputa- 
tion. The emperor, on this occasion, felt the influence of 



* Procop. de Bell. Vandal., lib. i., c. 6. Zonoras, lib. xjy. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



SI 



various motives, among which prevailed a feeling of respect 
for the degraded prince and resentment towards his oppressor ; 
but it was not until after the most mature deliberation, that, 
yielding to the calls of honour and policy, he announced his 
determination to expel the usurper, and resume the protec- 
tion of the province.* 

To accomplish this object, so important to his own fame 
as well as to the stability of the empire, he made choice of 
the renowned Belisarius, who had gained many laurels in the 
Persian war, from which he was just returned. Nor were 
the preparations commanded by Justinian unworthy of the 
last contest between Rome and Carthage. Five hundred 
transports, navigated by 20,000 sailors, carried to the oppo- 
site shore of the Mediterranean an army still more formida- 
able for its experience and discipline than for its numbers. 
Landing at the most convenient point, though at a consider- 
able distance from the capital, the general impressed on the 
minds of his soldiers the necessity of cultivating the friend- 
ship of the natives, who, he assured them, were eager to 
throw off the yoke of the barbarians, and to submit to the 
milder dominion of the Roman emperor. The conduct of 
the people soon proved the justness of his anticipations. So 
far from concealing their persons or their goods, they made 
haste to supply with provisions the camp of the invaders ; 
and one town after another opened its gates to the imperial 
commander, who accepted their allegiance in the name of his 
august sovereign. 

Belisarius, instructed by the misfortunes of those who, in 
the days of Genseric, had attempted the reduction of Africa, 
moved cautiously along the coast, accompanied by his fleet, 
from which he could at all times receive assistance or sup- 
plies. The approach of the legions to Carthage filled the 
i mind of the usurper with anxiety and fear ; having sent part 
of his army for the reduction of Sardinia, while he had neg- 
| lected to restore those fortifications by which the capital was 
i at one time defended, and which, on the present occasion, 
| would have enabled him to await with safety the concentra- 
! tion of his scattered forces. His military establishment was 
I hardly inferior to that of the emperor ; as he could command 
I the services of more than 150,000 fighting-men. But he 



* Procop., lib. i., c. 9 



82 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



knew that the deposed king had still many friends, who, he 
could not conceal from himself, were more likely to augment 
the ranks of the invader than to oppose his progress. He 
therefore at first had recourse to the usual expedients for 
protracting the interval which might precede the main attack 
of his enemy ; nor was it until he found that Belisarius 
could not be diverted from his object by treaty or conference, 
that he formed his plan for a general engagement. Dividing 
his troops into three portions, he intrusted to his brother a 
large body of foot, and to his nephew 2,000 cavalry, placing 
himself at the head of his guards, with whom he hoped to 
make an impression on the centre of his antagonists. But 
his skill and valour proved unequal to the chances of war 
and the discipline of the Romans. Before he was aware 
that the battle had begun, the best of his soldiers were either 
slain or compelled to save their lives by a tumultuous flight. 
He made a vigorous effort to retrieve the fortune of the day, 
before he would consent to turn his horse's head towards the 
Desert, the only stronghold to which he could retire.* 

Steady to his purpose of revenge, he had previously given 
orders to take away the life of Hilderic, that the conquerors 
might not have the satisfaction of replacing him on the 
throne — a disappointment which was amply compensated to 
Justinian, by finding the only obstacle removed that could 
prevent him from assuming in his own person the sovereign- 
ty of the African province. The surrender of Carthage soon 
followed this decisive victory : the citizens, eager to receive 
the imperial deputy as the deliverer of their country, instant- 
ly opened their gates to his soldiers, and their harbour to his 
ships ; and his entrance into the city, which had lately trem- 
bled under the despotic rule of Gelimer, was celebrated by a 
splendid festival. So gentle was the transition from the 
domination of the Vandals to the legitimate sway of the em- 
peror, that the trade of the port was not interrupted ; the 
shops continued open and busy; and the military, at the 
close of day, retired to their quarters, as if they had been the 
wonted garrison. 

But the usurper, although beaten, was not yet entirely 
subdued ; for such was the nature of the late conflict, that 
his army was rather scattered than cut off ; and as his follow- 



* Procop.,lib. i., c. 21. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



83 



ers had now no surer resource than war, they were not un- 
willing to second his endeavours for the recovery of his 
crown. The Moors, sympathizing in his misfortunes, or in- 
flamed with the love of pillage, supplied him with some har- 
dy recruits. The Arians, who foresaw in the success of 
Justinian the rejection of their creed by the African churches, 
flocked to his standard ; and his brother Zano, who had re- 
duced Sardinia, brought with him several thousand veterans, 
whose former triumphs had taught them to despise the de- 
generate Romans. Belisarius, who did not fail to watch the 
progress of events, was perfectly aware that the combined 
forces of the barbarian chiefs greatly outnumoered his own ; 
and, consequently, that, in whatever conflict might ensue, his 
sole reliance must be placed in the superiority of his arms 
and discipline. Under this impression he encouraged the 
enemy to make an attack in the night ; trusting that the 
darkness would at once conceal the disparity of the contend- 
ing bodies, and aid his plan for throwing the Vandals into 
confusion. The result answered his expectation, though the 
victory was not purchased without great loss ; the conquer- 
ors of Sardinia, under their brave leader, having repeatedly 
driven back the Roman cavalry, and fought hand to hand 
with the chosen guards of the imperial commander. Zano 
was found among the slain : but Gelimer once more departed 
from the field, where he left behind him all his power, and 
much of his former reputation. He outstripped the speed of 
some light troops, who were sent in pursuit of him ; upon 
which, Belisarius, knowing that it would be vain to follow 
his rapid retreat into the fastnesses of Mauritania, desisted 
from the attempt, and established his winter-quarters at Car- 
thage.* 

The expectations of the Roman general were not disap- 
pointed in regard to the effect of his mild policy on the tem- 
per of the Vandals. Finding themselves deserted by a lead- 
er who had seduced their affections from their lawful prince, 
they readily submitted to the government of a sovereign who 
appeared to advocate the claims of justice and humani- 
ty. All the cities comprehended in the modern states of 
Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers, acknowledged the authority of 
Justinian ; while the power of his arms gradually extended 



* Gibbon, chap. xliv. 



84 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



as far as the town of Septem, the Ceuta of European geog- 
raphers. Africa was accordingly divided into seven provin- 
ces, which were placed under the inspection of a Pretorian 
Prefect, who, in his civil capacity, enjoyed the assistance of 
a corresponding number of consulars and presidents, whose 
duty it was to administer the laws of the empire. 

a. d. 534. The conquest of Barbary was soon completed 
by the surrender of Gelimer, who had taken refuge in a for- 
tress situated on one of the Atlas mountains. After endu- 
ring a siege accompanied with more than the usual priva- 
tions, the usurper yielded his person, on the conditions of 
having his life spared and a provision secured ; though he 
was afterward compelled to grace the triumph of Belisarius, 
when this hero entered Constantinople after the manner of 
Roman conquerors. But in other respects, the Vandal king 
had no reason to accuse the generosity of the emperor ; for 
he was allowed an ample estate in the pleasant district of 
Asia Minor, where he spent the remainder of his days in 
comparative affluence and undisturbed repose. 

From this period the descendants of the warlike barbarians, 
who followed the standard of Genseric from Spain into Afri- 
ca, cease to occupy the attention of history as a separate 
people. Justinian, acting upon the usual maxim of a victori- 
ous state, induced the boldest and more generous of the 
Vandal youth to accept service in his army ; and it is related 
that five squadrons of horsemen, drawn from their best fami- 
lies, distinguished themselves by their bravery in the Persian 
wars. The lower classes, again, who soon found their opin- 
ions and habits exposed to another change of religion and 
government, mixed imperceptibly with the dominant popula- 
tion ; and hence, except in the casual occurrence of fair 
complexions and yellow* hair, which have met the eyes of re- 
cent travellers on the borders of the Desert, no evidence now 
remains of the memorable conquest effected by German 
tribes on the shores of Barbary. 

The peace which might be expected to follow r " so many 
victories and the extinction of a warlike people, was soon in- 
terrupted by the restless spirit of the Moors, who thought 
themselves entitled to aspire to the eminence from which 
the subjects of Gelimer had been compelled to descend. 
During the decline of the Vandalic power, these migratory 
herdsmen had extended their range from the pastures of 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



85 



Mauritania to the towns on the seacoast, and in fact had ta- 
ken possession of the greater part of that fine district which 
stretches from the ocean to the neighbourhood of Algiers. 
Belisarius, by gratifying the vanity of their chiefs, had, as 
long as his arms were employed against the Vandals, secured 
their neutrality ; but no sooner did he set sail for Constanti- 
nople, than they mustered their bands and proceeded towards 
the capital. Solomon, to whom the command of the prov- 
ince was confided, made haste to meet them in the field ; 
and, although his troops sustained a check when engaged 
with the outposts of the enemy, he renewed the attack with 
so much coolness and resolution, that he cut in pieces about 
60,000 of their number. Pursuing his advantage, he fol- 
lowed them into the heart of their country, where, by redu- 
cing one of their strongest posts, he compelled them to sue 
for terms of accommodation. 

a. d. 558. But Africa, meanwhile, was rapidly sinking 
back into the state of barbarism from which it had been raised 
by the Phoenicians and Romans ; and every step of intestine 
discord was marked by the triumph of savage man over 
the institutions of civilized society. The Moors, who had 
succeeded to the quarrels of the Vandals not less surely than 
to their lands, showed themselves still more impatient of the 
restraint imposed by law, and the oppressions which seemed 
to attend the collection of the revenue. An act of treachery, 
perpetrated by one of the nephews of Solomon, inflamed 
their resentment, and once more drove them to open rebell- 
ion. A battle ensued, in which the prefect was slain, after 
losing the greater part of his army ; though the victory, 
achieved by the insurgents at an immense waste of life, failed 
to establish their power. Many of their bravest leaders had 
perished in the conflict, while the arrival of fresh troops and 
skilful commanders soon secured for the imperial cause the 
ascendency which for a moment appeared to be in danger. 
But, it has been truly observed, the successes and defeats of 
Justinian were alike pernicious to mankind ; and such was 
now the desolation of the African provinces, that in many 
parts a stranger might wander whole days without meeting 
the face either of a friend or an enemy. The nation of the 
Vandals, as has just been noticed, had already disappeared, 
though they once amounted to 600,000 individuals, and could 
boast of being able to equip for the field 150,000 warriors. 



86 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



The number of Moorish families extirpated during their sev- 
eral insurrections was still greater : while, on the other 
hand, the Romans with their allies sustained, from the rava- 
ges of the climate and the fury of the barbarians, an extent 
of loss not much inferior to that which their antagonists had 
to bewail. When Procopius, the annalist of these destruc- 
tive wars, first landed, he admired the populousness of the 
cities and country, successfully employed in the labours of 
commerce and agriculture. In less than twenty years, that 
busy scene was converted into a silent solitude ; the more 
wealthy escaped to Sicily and Constantinople ; and it has 
been confidently affirmed, that 5,000,000 of the natives were 
consumed by disease, famine, and the sword, during the reign 
of the Emperor Justinian.* 

a. d. 647. A state of inactivity, the effect of weakness 
and disunion, had continued nearly 100 years, when the 
mixed inhabitants of Northern Africa were roused, as if from 
a slumber, by the Saracens under Abdallah, the lieutenant of 
the Caliph Othman. At the head of 40,000 armed men, he 
advanced from Egypt into the wilderness of Barca — a stran- 
ger to all parts of the vast continent which stretched out be- 
fore him, or only knowing that there were extensive lands to 
conquer and numerous tribes to subdue. After a fatiguing 
march, the privations of which were somewhat lightened bv 
the use of the camel, he found himself in presence of an en- 
emy near the walls of Tripoli. Preferring the chance of a 
battle to the delay of a siege, the disciple of Mohammed mar- 
shalled his troops and awaited the attack of the Greeks, who 
were led by the Prefect Gregory. A conflict of long dura- 
tion and various fortune terminated in a decisive victory in 
favour of the invaders. The Grecian general fell in the ac- 
tion ; his daughter, who fought by his side, was taken pris- 
oner ; and a large proportion of the wealth which still re- 
mained in the wasred province rewarded the valour of the 
Arabians. But such a victory was not gained without a 
heavy loss, which, being still further aggravated by the in- 
roads of a pestilential disease, Abdallah found it expedient to 
relinquish his conquests, and to fall back upon the Nile.t 

* Procop. Anec, c. 18, quoted by Gibbon, chap, xliii. See 
also Procop. De Bell. Vandal., lib. ii,, c. 19, &c. 

t Vie de Mahomet par Gagnier, tome iii., p. 45 ; Leo African, 
p. 585, edit. 1632. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



87 



a. d. 680. The dissensions which distracted the caliphate 
secured for the Barbary States a period of doubtful repose ; 
during which, it should seem, the provincials were doomed 
to suffer as severely from the legal exactions of their Euro- 
pean governors as from the forced tribute of the Mohammedan 
princes. Akbah, a brave commander, was accordingly sent 
by the ruler of the Moslem to reclaim the ground which 
their arms had gained ; and, in this instance, their progress 
was facilitated by the good wishes of the people, whose af- 
flictions had rendered them indifferent to national fame, reli- 
gion, and lineage. Meeting with little resistance, he marched 
through Mauritania, driving the natives before him, till at 
length he reached the borders of the Desert and the shores 
of the Atlantic. He made himself master also of the chief 
towns on the ocean, as well as the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, and had, as he imagined, completed the subjec- 
tion of the whole country, when intelligence was conveyed to 
him that the inhabitants of the eastern districts were in a 
state of open revolt. He hastened to quell the insurrection, 
but lost his life and army in the attempt. His successor, 
Zobeir, shared the same fate ; for, after earning many laurels 
as a commander of the faithful, he was overthrown by a 
powerful armament sent from the Grecian capital.* 

The invasion of Akbah was rendered memorable by the 
foundation of Kairwan or Cairoan, a town of which the re- 
mains are still found about fifty miles south from Tunis, and 
twelve from the sea. His object was to give birth to an 
Arabian colony in a retired part of the province, where his 
countrymen might find a refuge against the accidents of war, 
and in which they might place their families and booty du- 
ring the labours of a campaign. A wall of brick surrounded 
the rising capital, which was afterward decorated with a 
governor's palace, a mosque supported by 500 columns of 
granite and marble, and several schools of learning, t 

* Ockley, History of the Saracens, vol. ii., p. 129. Morgan 
has collected numerous " testimonies" of the pride, insolence, 
and avarice of the Romans, and ascribes their loss of Africa to 
their insupportable tyranny, p. 162. See also Salvianus de Pro- 
videntia, lib. iv., and Procopius, De Bello Gothico, lib. hi. 

f Leo African., p. 575. " Cairaoan sive alio nomine Caroen 
nobilissimum oppidum conditorem habuit Hucba — a Mediterra- 
neo mare xxxvi. a Tuneto verum centum fere abest milliaribus, 



88 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



a. d. 698. A few years before the close of the seventh 
century, Hassan, the viceroy of Egypt, was ordered to attack 
Carthage, and subject the whole of the surrounding country 
to the religion and authority of the caliph. But he had hardly 
reduced the metropolis of Africa, when a large force arrived 
from Constantinople, which compelled him to retire to Kair- 
wan, the town whose origin has just been described. The 
issue of a battle, however, again put the city of Dido into 
his hands ; and a second engagement, which took place near 
Utica, proved so disastrous to the Greeks, that they fled to 
their ships, and finally relinquished the country. 

a. d. 699. The Moors having beheld, not without secret 
satisfaction, the discomfiture and retreat of those haughty 
conquerors, resolved to secure for their own use the territory 
which their forefathers had allowed to be wrested from their 
hands. This people, who, when the Roman empire pos- 
sessed its early power, were feeble or unresisting, had grad- 
ually become formidable after the seat of government was 
transferred to the East ; and now, when the imperial troops 
were expelled in disgrace, they thought themselves sufficiently 
strong to oppose with success the victorious bands of the Sar- 
acens. Assembling their tribes under the standard of Ca- 
hina, whom they reverenced at once as a prophetess and a 
sovereign, they attacked the veterans of Hassan with such 
enthusiastic fury, that he was unable to keep his ground, and 
at length had the mortification of seeing his old soldiers turn 
their backs before a horde of barbarians conducted by a 
woman. He withdrew into Egypt, where he waited for a 
re-enforcement, with which he still hoped to recover Africa, 
and to annex it permanently to the dominions of the caliph. 
Nor was it long before the extravagance of the Moorish 
queen enabled him to realize his expectations. The Moslem 
returned ; gained an easy victory over her disorderly and fa- 
natical bands ; and, as she herself fell in the first battle, her 
followers made but a slight effort to maintain the cause of 
independence, the love of which had carried them into the 
field. 

From this epoch, Northern Africa may be regarded as a 

neque aliam ob causam conditum fuisse dicunt quam ut in eo 
exercitus cum omni praeda Barbans atque Numidis adempta, 
secure se contenere posseni." 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



89 




Moorish. Artisan and Female. 



section of the great Mohammedan empire. The successor 
of Hassan, who trusted not less to the Koran than the sword, 
laboured so successfully to make proselytes to the creed of Is- 
lamism, that he had the satisfaction to see the people gradually 
reconciled to the divine authority of the prophet, and to the 
justice of his arms. Thirty thousand of the young men were 
enlisted in his service ; and the similarity of habits between 
the Arab in the Desert and the Moor in the Sahara, soon ob- 
literated whatever distinction each might have been disposed 
to maintain. If the Berbers, according to their own tradi- 
tion, originally issued from that eastern peninsula which is 
washed by the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, their relation- 
ship to their conquerors could not be called in question ; and, 
at all events, at the present day, every shade of difference, 
whether in blood or religion, has entirely disappeared, except 



90 



MODERN HISTORY OF 



euch as may have been perpetuated by the pursuits of active 
life. The shepherds, who still follow the customs of their 
ancestors, display peculiarities which do not belong to the 
artisans who seek a subsistence in large towns ; bat there is 
not, either in their complexion or features, any characteristic 
which may not be confidently ascribed to their occupation 
and manners. The foregoing plate represents a faithful like- 
ness of a Moor in the class of society to which he belongs, 
accompanied by a female in the costume of her rank and sex. 

During the ascendency of the Mussulmans in Africa, the 
capital of their dominions was Kairwan, the city built by Ak- 
bah, where their viceroys usually had their abode, and whence 
they extended their cares to the government of the western 
provinces and even of Spain. At this period the Arabs oc- 
cupied the principal towns along the coast, both because 
they might be called upon to defend them against the fleets 
of Constantinople and the corsairs of the opposite shores, 
and also because it was not yet thought expedient to dispute 
with the Moors the possession of those lands between the 
sea and the Desert which had descended to them as an inher- 
itance, or fallen into their hands as a conquest. Even these 
precautions did not prevent a succession of bloody wars, 
waged by the old inhabitants against the regular troops, 
whose duty it was to repress their ravages as they issued 
from the defiles of Mount Atlas. 

a. d. 800. About the 184th year of the Hcgira, the cel- 
ebrated prince, Haroun al Raschid, the fifth of the Abbassides, 
intrusted to Ibrahim ibn Aglab the government of Africa. 
This ambitious captain soon threw ofT his allegiance, assumed 
the supreme power in his own person, and laid the founda- 
tion of a dynasty, the Beni Aglab or Aglabites, which con- 
tinued during eleven successions and more than. 100 years. 
Rostam, who was sent to restore the authority of the caliph, 
so far forgot his duty as to follow the example of his prede- 
cessor, and seized certain provinces, which he converted into 
an independent kingdom. Nearly at the same epoch, the 
remainder of the Barbary States, including the whole of the 
Tingitana, became the prey of Edris, a descendant of Ali, 
the son-in-law of Mohammed ; and, in this way, no part of 
Africa, with the single exception of Egypt, acknowledged 
fealty to the successor of the prophet. Edris is venerated 
by the natives of Mauritania as the founder of Fez — of that 
part of it at least which is now denominated the Old City. 



THE BARBARY STATES. 



91 



a. D. 909. The rise of the Fatimites, in the person of Al 
Mahadi, suppressed for a time all the other dynasties of the 
"West. He assumed the title of caliph, and governed Africa 
with a rod of iron ; making also several attempts to add 
Egypt to his dominions, in one of which he reduced the city 
of Alexandria. His grandson Moez, who succeeded in con- 
quering the rich valley of the Nile, removed the seat of his 
government to Cairo, where, claiming the honours due to 
the successor of their great apostle, and commanding his 
name to be introduced into the public prayers of the mosque, 
he inflicted upon his church the scandal of a schism. 

When he left Barbary, he consigned the charge of the 
provincials to Yussuf ibn Zeiri, who, asserting the independ- 
ence of that fine country, gave rise to a dynasty of princes, 
who figure in the Spanish histories under the corrupt appella- 
tion of Zegris. This family, there is reason to believe, en- 
joyed royal power in the territory of Algiers down to the 
year 1148, when the last sovereign of their race was killed 
in battle by the forces of Roger, king of Sicily and Calabria, 
who, in -their progress to the Holy Land, were induced by a 
feeling of revenge to debark on the African coast. 

When Moez was on the throne of Egypt, he gave per- 
mission to an immense multitude of Arabs to pass through 
that country on their way to Barbary ; whither they carried 
with them a great number of camels, the first which were 
naturalized in the northern parts of the continent. It is said 
that no fewer than 50,000 warriors accompanied this emigra- 
tion, who, as they went to seek new lands for their flocks 
and herds, produced a deep impression on the whole province, 
and effected a material change in the distribution of property, 
Leo Africanus relates that they took Tripoli, and put most 
of the inhabitants to the sword ; destroyed Capes, in the 
neighbourhood of Tunis ; and next attacked Kairwan, the 
metropolis of the Saracenic princes, in the sack of which 
they were guilty of the greatest inhumanities. They soon 
overran all the plain country, and penetrated into many parts 
of the Southern Numidia ; for, like their countrymen at 
home, being generally mounted on fleet horses, they evaded 
the pursuit of the Moors, who were more accustomed to fight 
on foot. It is from these families of Arabs, whom Moez 
encouraged to pass the Red Sea, that the wandering tribes 
have sprung, who still employ the camel in the African 



92 



MODERN HISTORY, ETC. 



deserts, and follow the nomade life at once as shepherds and 
merchants. The Saracens who followed the standard of 
Akbah count themselves more noble than the hordes just 
described, not only because these last remained longer ig- 
norant of the orthodox faith, but also because they have 
stained the purity of their descent by intermixture with foreign 
nations. 

a. d. 1148. It would be equally tedious and fruitless to 
trace the history of the several dynasties which, during the 
weakness of the caliphate, rose and disappeared in Barbary. 
The Almohades and Almoravides lay claim, perhaps, to some 
attention, from their intercourse with the Moslem princes, 
who at that period occupied a large portion of the Spanish 
peninsula. The latter, who revived for a time the spirit of 
the Mohammedan creed, found their efforts crowned with 
great success ; and, in fact, extended their conquests into 
the south and west, which they were also able to retain du- 
ring the lapse of nearly a hundred years. 

But the events which follow upon the commencement of 
the thirteenth century will enter with better effect into the 
narrative which respects the Barbary States, taken separ- 
ately ; the condition, indeed, in which they naturally present 
themselves to the view of the reader after the fall of the 
dynasty founded by Abu Beker, and the suspension of the 
general government under the descendants of the prophet. 
To this part of our undertaking we shall return, so soon as 
we have taken a brief review of the religion and literature 
of Northern Africa, from the dawn of history down to the 
date of its conquest by the Arabian Mussulmans. 



RELIGION, LITERATURE, ETC. 93 



CHAPTER IV. 
Religion and Literature of the Barbary States. 

The Religion and Literature vary with the successive Inhab- 
itants — Superstition of the Natives— Human Sacrifices con- 
tinued by the Carthaginians — Worship of Meicarth, Astarte, 
and Baal— No sacred Caste or Priesthood — Religious Rites 
performed by the Chief Magistrates — Introduction of Chris- 
tianity — Accomplished by the Arms of Rome — Different Opin- 
ions as to the Date of Conversion and the Persons by whom 
it was effected — Statements of Salvianand Augustin — Learn- 
ing and Eloquence of the African Clergy, Tertullian, Cyprian, 
Lactantius, and the Bishop of Hippo — Works of these Divines 
— Death of Cyprian and Augustin — The Writings of the La^n 
Fathers chiefly valuable as a Record of Usages, Opinions, and 
Discipline — Church revived under Justinian — Invasion of the 
Moslem— Christian Congregations permitted to exist under 
the Mohammedan Rulers — Conditions of Toleration — Afri- 
cans gradually yield to the Seducements of the New Faith, 
and the Gospel is superseded by the Koran — Barbary States 
the only Country where Christianity has been totally extin- 
guished — Attempt made to restore it by the Patriarch of Alex- 
andria — Five Bishops sent to Kairwan — Public Profession 
of the Gospel cannot be traced after the Twelfth Century — 
A few Christians found at Tunis in 1533 — Learning of the 
Arabs — Great Exertions of Almamoun — He collects Greek 
Authors, and causes them to be translated — He is imitated 
by the Fatimites of Africa — Science cultivated by the Mo- 
hammedans Five Hundred Years — Their chief Studies were 
Mathematics, Astronomy, and Chymistry — Their Progress in 
Chymical Researches — Neglect Literature, properly so called 
— Prospect of Improvement from the Settlement of European 
Colonies in Northern Africa. 

The religion and learning of the Barbary States will be 
found to vary with the several races of men by whom they 
have been successively occupied since the era of the Phoe- 
nicians ; the original inhabitants having left no record of 
their opinions, either in regard to the material world, or to 
those more lofty objects which interest the belief and the 



94 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



imagination. The ancient Getulians, it is probable, like their 
neighbours of the Desert, had no literature ; while, as to 
faith and worship, they may be supposed to have shared in 
that universal superstition which connects the veneration of 
mankind with those physical manifestations that accompany 
the periodical production and decay of all organized forms. 
The energies of nature, whether displayed in the firmament 
or in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, associate them- 
selves in the rude mind with certain emblems which are con- 
ceived to have some affinity to the immaterial principle 
whence the source of all events has its rise ; and this asso- 
ciation, however arbitrary or remote, confers upon the mean- 
est things a relative sanctity, by which they seem to become 
not only worthy of respect, but also of a species of religious 
confidence and trust. 

Hence the origin of fetichism ; the notion that a piece of 
wood or a polished stone may be the seat of an invisible 
power, and which may be described as a species of Panthe- 
ism, common to every climate at a particular stage of civil- 
ization. Every object endowed with qualities, fitted either 
to bestow a signal benefit or to inflict a serious injury, was 
regarded as the abode or the instrument of a mysterious 
agent, whose divinity might be propitiated by attention or 
offended by neglect. Taken by itself, this simple belief may 
be viewed as nothing more than the parent of ridiculous 
usages and absurd apprehensions, being a stranger to those 
bloody rites which have been sometimes ingrafted upon it 
by the priests of a darker superstition, who demand for their 
gods the most horrible sacrifices. 

The Tyrian colonists who followed their exiled princess to 
Carthage, had been accustomed in their own land to witness 
the frightful spectacle of human bodies laid upon the altars 
of their demons. The worship of Moloch, which prevailed 
among all the Aramaean nations, was not unknown on the 
eastern shores of the Mediterranean ; and in all parts of the 
world, the same barbarous immolations were practised by the 
votaries of this idol, who condemned to the fire or the knife 
the noblest children in their land. In times of peace and 
tranquillity, the offspring of slaves were substituted for the 
heirs of more distinguished families ; but when pestilence 
or an unsuccessful war afflicted the state, victims were se- 
lected from the highest ranks, and consigned to a cruel death* 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 95 



Diodorus relates that the Carthaginians, finding themselves 
oppressed by the arms of Agathocles, turned their thoughts 
to the cares of religion ; and suspecting that undue substi- 
tutions had taken place in the choice of human sacrifices, 
ordered 200 children of exalted birth to be offered up with- 
out delay. Nor was this held enough to appease the anger 
of the god, and to retrieve the fortunes of the republic ; on 
which account, 300 individuals, whose consciences accused 
them of neglect in their pious duties, presented their bodies 
also, in order to make a fuller atonement for the sins of the 
people. On such occasions, the nearest relative was not 
allowed to shed a tear, lest the offering should be thereby 
rendered unacceptable.* 

The subjects of Dido appear to have also worshipped a 
tutelar deity, denominated Melcarth — King of the City — 
who exhibited some of the features of the Baal, the sun-god, 
whom the Greeks and Romans identified with their Apollo ; 
and there is no doubt that Astaroth, or Astarte, the emblem 
of increase, was adored by the Carthaginians with ceremonies 
corresponding to her attributes.! But what objects or powers 
of nature were originally represented by these beings, or 
rather appellations, it is not of any consequence to determine. 
It is clear, at the same time, that this religion, if such it 
might be called, was patronised by the commonwealth, and 
in fact became a part of the government. There was, how- 
ever, no distinct order of priests or sacred caste in Carthage, 
as there was in Egypt ; nor are there any usages whence we 
might conclude that sacerdotal functions were hereditary in 
certain families, who, on that account, were possessed of 
dignity and emolument. But it is not less certain that the 
duties of the priesthood were discharged by the highest 
persons in the country, and had outward marks of honour 
attached to them ; so that some of the more important of 
these appointments were deemed not unworthy the sons of 
their kings. Indeed, the weightiest affairs of the nation were 
so intimately connected with religious ceremonies, that it 
seems probable the magistrates were also invested with the 
chief of the sacerdotal offices, and directed the zeal of the 

* Diodor. Sicul., lib. xx., c. 14. 

f I should prefer the derivation of Melcarth flltf *V7D> King 
of the Way, meaning the zodiac, or solar path. 1 



96 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



people on all great occasions. The generals, too, were au- 
thorized to offer sacrifice even daring the time of battle ; 
while prophets accompanied the armies, without whose ad- 
vice the most popular commander was not free to act. All 
the great enterprises, moreover, of their forces, by land and 
sea, their treaties with foreign princes, and their accessions 
of territory, v/ere recorded in the principal temples. Again, 
no distant settlement was ever planted without the addition 
of a sanctuary, to connect the colony with the parent state, 
whence missions were occasionally sent, with the view of 
perpetuating the connexion between the sacred metropolis 
and her affiliated dependances.* 

Among the native authors none stand so high in point of 
literary reputation as Juba, the king of Mauritania, who ap- 
pears to have inherited a large share of the knowledge pos- 
sessed by the Carthaginians. Availing himself of the annals 
left by that enterprising people, he is understood to have 
written at some length on the civil and natural history of 
Africa ; but as his works are entirely lost, we can only judg© 
of their merits from certain references made to them by Pliny, 
in his chapter on the geography of the Barbary States. 

This learned Roman, on the authority of the Mauritanian 
prince, attempts to delineate the courses of the Niger and 
the Nile — an undertaking which, though unattended with 
any degree of success, serves at least to mark the limits of 
ancient inquiry with regard to these celebrated rivers. The 
naturalist, it is manifest, confounded some lakes and streams 
on the western coast of Morocco not only with the sources 
of the Joliba, but even with one of the main branches of the 
Egyptian Nile ; thereby leading his readers to suppose that 
the army of Cornelius Balbus, after crossing the Great Desert, 
had actually visited the banks of the mysterious current whose 
outlet into the Atlantic has been recently discovered. 

Nor was the curiosity of Juba confined to the African con- 
tinent. In his times, some conjectures had reached the ears 
of the learned respecting those islands which lie scattered in 
the great ocean, at various distances from the land ; and in 
which were imagined to be assembled all the beauty and 
delights incident to their happy climate, and all the felicities 
that ever fall to the lot of man upon earth. Of these fortu- 



* Heeren, vol. i., p. 142. 



OF THE BARBAE. Y STATES. 



97 



nate isles he had ascertained the names of six, which, though 
they do not precisely coincide with those recorded by Ptole- 
my and Sebosus, belong unquestionably to the same group.* 

Long prior to the days of this monarch, literature flourished 
under the most favourable auspices on the eastern section 
of the Barbary coast. As the Cyrenaica was originally occu- 
pied by colonies from Greece, it is hardly necessary to re- 
mark, that its towns were distinguished as seats of learning 
and philosophy. That favoured district gave birth to Aris- 
tippus, the founder of a well-known sect, to Callimachus, 
Eratosthenes, Anniceris, Carneades, Synesius, and several 
other writers, who hold a prominent place in the annals of 
wisdom, genius, and industry. 

The doctrines of the Cyrenaic school, originating with 
Aristippus, were not a little singular, particularly when car- 
ried to the extent to which they were pushed by Carneades. 
They so far resembled the tenets of Epicurus as to identify 
virtue with happiness ; proceeding on the ground that no 
action or sentiment can be esteemed good which does not 
conduce to the gratification, or at least to the wellbeing of 
mankind. The disciple of Aristippus adopted these notions 
in their fullest import ; and introduced, moreover, those inter- 
minable speculations which respect the basis of human belief 
on questions of ethics, and the foundations of knowledge when 
applied even to physical science. Like Pyrrho, he denied 
that the perception o f external things is real or immediate ; 
and, of course, that outward objects' have any other exist- 
ence, or rather can be proved to have any other existence, 
than what they borrow from the mind of him who contem- 
plates them. Hence he was led to teach, that it is the part 
of a truly wise man to persist in doubt, and to secure for 
himself an entire suspension of the determining faculties. 
But, as these opinions belong to the theories of the Grecian 
schools, rather than to the native genius of Africa, it will be 
held sufficient to have thus briefly alluded to them. 

The introduction of the Gospel effected a great and most 
beneficial change in the habits of the people as well as in the 
pursuits of the higher orders. Rome, by her arms, had opened 

* Plinii Histor. Natural., lib. v., p. 66. Juba Ptolemaei pater, 
^ui primus utrique Mauritania? imperavit, studiorum claritate 
toemorabilior*etiamque regno. 



98 



RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



a path for the Christian missionaries into all the northern 
shores of Africa, from the mouth of the Nile to the vicinity 
of Algiers ; and the blessings of the new faith were accord- 
ingly enjoyed in most of the principal cities of that province, 
before they could make their way across the Alps into Gaul 
and Germany. This happy result was facilitated by the 
intercourse which the Jews maintained between Syria and 
Asia Minor, on the one hand, and the thriving towns of the 
Pentapolis and the Carthaginian states, on the other — a fact 
which is finely illustrated by a reference in the Book of Acts, 
where, among the strangers at Jerusalem who witnessed the 
triumph of Christianity over the prejudices of education, are 
mentioned " dwellers in Egypt, and in the parts of Libya 
about Cyrene." In truth, numbers of Hebrews appear to 
have settled in the Cyrenaica long prior to the reign of 
Augustus. As a proof of this, besides the fact already men- 
tioned, we find that some of them took part with their Alex- 
andrian brethren in disputing against the first martyr, St. 
Stephen ; while converted Jews of Cyprus and Cyrene, flee- 
ing from the persecution raised by the adherents of the Mo- 
saic Law, were the first preachers of the new faith to the 
Grecians of Antioch. It has, indeed, been remarked, that 
the inhabitants of this part of the empire derived their knowl- 
edge of the true religion from the same source which had 
diffused among them the language, the sentiments, and the 
manners of Italy. In these important circumstances, Africa 
was indeed gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capi- 
tal ; and, in respect to the reception of the Gospel, it dis- 
played much more ardour than the districts which stretch 
along the Rhine, though the latter were benefited by a more 
frequent intercourse. The Christians in Barbary soon formed 
one of the principal sections of the primitive Church ; while 
the practice of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable 
towns, contributed to increase the importance of their reli- 
gious societies. 

There prevails among ecclesiastical historians no small 
discrepance of opinion as to the precise period at which our 
religion was introduced into Africa — a difference which may 
perhaps be explained by suggesting that what was true with 
respect to one part of the coast might not be strictly applica- 
ble to the whole. Salvian, on the one hand, maintains that the 
Church of Carthage was actually founded by the Apostles 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 99 



themselves ; while Petilianus, on the other, asserts that the 
Africans were the last people in the empire to receive the 
truth. Dorotheus and Nicephorus relate that Simon Zelotes 
preached the faith in Mauritania, where he also enjoyed the 
assistance of St. Peter in these pious labours ; adding, that 
Epaenetus, one of the Seventy, was about the same time ap- 
pointed Bishop of Carthage. But Augustin, a much better 
authority, positively declares that his countrymen received 
the saving doctrines from the Romans, who sent missionaries 
across the Mediterranean to confer upon their colonists the 
two great blessings of a sound belief and a taste for learning. 
"Whatever doubts there may be as to the period when the 
glad tidings were first conveyed to the Barbary shores, there 
can be none with regard to their rapid and extensive promul- 
gation, wherever the legions pitched their camp or could 
maintain the authority of law. Were we to estimate the 
number of Christians by that of the highest order of clergy, 
we should, perhaps, greatly exceed the real amount ; and yet 
there appears good reason to conclude that a large portion 
of the inhabitants, before the middle of the fourth century, 
had ranged themselves under the banners of the Cross. Even 
after the slaughter perpetrated by the Vandals, the bishop of 
the capital, whose name was Reparatus, presided in a council 
in which were assembled no fewer than 217 prelates. Per- 
secution had not materially thinned their numbers ; for, to 
use the phrase of an eloquent author, the more they were cut 
down, the more abundantly did they spring up.* 

The African province was celebrated for the great learning 
and eloquence of its divines, long before Christianity became 
the established religion of Rome. The names of Tertullian, 
Cyprian, Lactantius, and Augustin, still reflect honour upon 
her schools ; and there are others less orthodox in their opin- 
ions, whose memories will be preserved in connexion with 
certain theological speculations which owe to them either a 
beginning or a marked degree of countenance. The first of 
the divines now mentioned, after studying law, became a 
presbyter at Carthage, and was highly esteemed as a writer 
of great genius, as well as a complete master of the Latin 
tongue. His piety, though ardent, did not escape the au- 

* " Plures eflicimur quoties metimur a vobis, semen est san- 
guis Christianorum."— Tertulliani Apologet, 



100 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



sterity and moroseness that began to cloud the age to which 
he belonged ; nor did his zeal protect him from the inroads 
of those heresies which had already disturbed the belief of 
the East and the West, especially the absurd notions of Mon- 
tanus. 

Cyprian, the renowned bishop of Carthage, had, in his own 
person, sufficient learning and talent to distinguish any com- 
munity. He was, it must not be concealed, characterized 
by a certain severity of wisdom which frequently created 
opposition, and gave birth to disputes, whence arose to him- 
self, as well as to others, much contumely and suffering. 
His works, a large portion of which still remain, place him 
unquestionably at the head of the Latin fathers, whether we 
take into consideration the importance of his subjects or the 
ability with which they are handled. They breathe, at the 
same time, such an elevated spirit, that it is impossible to 
read them without partaking of the enthusiasm which must 
have inspired the mind of the author. It has, indeed, been 
remarked, that he would have been a better writer had he 
been less attentive to the ornaments of rhetoric ; and a better 
bishop, had he been able to restrain the vehemence of his 
temper, and to distinguish with greater acuteness between 
evangelical truth and that which only bore the semblance 
of it. 

When the second persecution was raised against the Chris- 
tians, under the Emperor Valerian, this prelate was summon- 
ed to appear before the proconsul of Carthage, by whom, 
when he had refused to sacrifice to idols, he was condemned 
to be banished. He was sent to a little town, then called 
Curebis, about fifty miles from the capital, where he was 
treated with great kindness by the natives, and frequently 
visited by the more faithful adherents of the Church. Orders 
having been received by the imperial lieutenant to take away 
his life, Cyprian was seized by a band of soldiers and con- 
ducted to the city. His answers to the usual questions re- 
specting his faith soon established the charge urged against 
him of believing in the Gospel ; upon which Galerius Maxi- 
mus, who at that time exercised the government, pronounced 
upon him the sentence of death. No sooner were the words 
uttered than the martyr exclaimed, " God be praised !" He 
was then led to the place of execution, where he suffered 
with great firmness and constancy, sealing with his blood the 



OP THE BARBARY STATES. 101 



truths which he had taught, and in which he exhorted others 
to repose their confidence. 

The writings of this distinguished martyr are held in high 
esteem, for this reason, among others, that they are capable 
of being usefully quoted in supporting the doctrines and dis- 
cipline of the Church. His letters are particularly valuable, 
not only as presenting the chief incidents of his life, but also 
as supplying some valuable materials for ecclesiastical his- 
tory. The third century has not transmitted to us any ac- 
count which delineates so clearly the spirit, the taste, the 
discipline, and the habits of the great community of believers. 

Lactantius, who for the elegance of his style was called 
the Christian Cicero, was celebrated as a professor of rheto- 
ric before he was intrusted with the education of Crispus, a 
son of the Emperor Constantine. His " Divine Institutions" 
do honour to his zeal as a member of the Church, and entitle 
his name to a prominent place in the history of Africa. A 
more popular treatise, written by him on the " Death of Per- 
secutors," manifests the great interest which he took in the 
cause of the Gospel, and also communicates a variety of facts 
connected with the biography of the leading men of those 
remote ages, which might otherwise have been lost to our 
ecclesiastical records. When opposed to writers who took 
the field in defence of paganism, the African orator never 
fails to gain a triumph ; but, it must be added that, when he 
undertook the office of an expositor of Sacred Scripture, he 
adopted too freely the principles which he had condemned in 
his Gentile antagonists. 

But among the divines whom Africa produced during the 
third and fourth centuries, none holds a higher place than 
Augustin. This learned man was born at Tagasta, and pur- 
sued his studies at Carthage ; in which city, both his morals 
and his theological opinions received so deep a taint, that it 
was long before his character rose to the reputation which 
the voice of the Church has ever since conferred upon him. 
He allowed himself in early life to become a convert to the 
doctrines of Manes, which, it has been suspected by able 
writers, were afterward ingrafted upon his speculations when 
labouring to systematize the several books of the inspired vol- 
ume. It is true that he openly abjured all connexion with 
the Persian school, and even employed his great talents in 
exposing their principal tenets ; but it is manifest, neverthe- 



102 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



less, that, in supporting his peculiar views on predestination 
and grace, he condescended to use arguments more closely 
allied to the sect whom he had abandoned, than to the gos- 
pels which he meant to illustrate or recommend. His zeal 
against the Pelagians, with whom he had successfully con- 
tended, carried him towards those extremes which character- 
ized his conclusions on the disputed articles of freewill, elec- 
tion, and original sin. 

Being raised to the office of bishop at Hippo Regius, the 
modern Bona, he had soon an opportunity of displaying the 
steadfastness of his belief and the firmness of his character. 
When Genseric, at the head of his Vandals, had overrun the 
greater part of the province, he met with a determined re- 
sistance at the episcopal city just named, which he therefore 
resolved to level with the dust. When consulted by the 
Christians, whether they ought to provide for their safety by 
flight, or to await the onset of the barbarians, Augustin de- 
cided in favour of the latter, as more becoming their duty ; 
and, when the place was actually invested, he encouraged 
his flock, as well by his example as his eloquent discourses, 
to defend themselves against the fierce heretics who threat- 
ened at once their lives and the purity of their faith. Dread- 
ing, however, that he himself might fall into the hands of the 
exasperated enemy, he is said to have prayed that he might 
be relieved by death before the means of defence should be 
exhausted ; and it is well known that his desires in this re- 
spect were gratified, for he was gently removed, in the third 
month of the siege, from the frightful calamities which im- 
pended over his country. 

When the city was destroyed by the soldiers of Genseric, 
the library of Augustin was saved from the flames. In it 
were found his own writings, comprehending no fewer than 
230 separate treatises on theological subjects, an exposition 
of the Psalms, and a great number of homilies. The learn- 
ing of this prelate appears to have been confined to the Latin 
language ; the most competent critics never having been 
able to discover in his works any tokens of an intimate ac- 
quaintance with Greek. His style, too, though inspired with 
the eloquence of passion, is not unfrequently clouded by a 
false and affected rhetoric, the vice of the age in which he 
lived, not less than of the country to which he owed his 
birth. But, notwithstanding these disadvantages, his fame 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 103 



has filled the whole Christian world ; and not without reason, 
as a variety of great and shining qualities were, no doubt, 
united in his character. A lofty genius, a zealous pursuit 
of truth, an indefatigable application, a sincere piety, and no 
small skill in the art of composition, contributed to estab- 
lish his reputation upon the most lasting basis. It is, in- 
deed, admitted, that the accuracy of his judgment was by no 
means in proportion to the eminent talents now mentioned, 
and that upon many occasions he was more guided by the 
impulse of a warm imagination than by the dictates of wis- 
dom and prudence. Hence that ambiguity which appears 
in so many of his tracts, and which sometimes renders the 
most attentive reader uncertain with respect to his real sen- 
timents. Hence also the just complaints which have been 
made of the contradictions so frequent in his volumes, and 
of the eagerness which he shows to dilate upon subjects 
before he has made himself master of their different bearings. 
His theological dogmas, as is known to every one, were 
some centuries afterward adopted by the powerful mind of 
Calvin, who gave to them that harmony and mutual depend- 
ance in which consists their greatest strength. 

During this period the literature of the Western Empire 
was still preferred to that of the Greeks, who, prior to the 
conquest of the Vandals, had only a very slight intercourse 
with any part of Africa westward of the promontory of Car- 
thage. For this reason, the works of the Christian Fathers, 
whose names we have just rehearsed, present little that is 
truly valuable, either in the form of criticism on the language 
of the Sacred Scriptures, or of doctrinal exposition. Their 
chief importance, therefore, will be found to consist in the 
record they exhibit of the usages, opinions, and discipline of 
the Church in those early times, when as yet there were no 
secular motives to give a colour to innovation, or to withdraw 
the minds of the faithful from the standard of belief and 
practice left by the Apostles, whose authority was still so 
recent. 

Science as yet was very little cultivated by the divines of 
Africa. It was reserved for the Arabs to transplant into 
that country the mathematical knowledge of the Grecian 
| sages, as well as the several hypotheses in relation to the 
i physical laws of the universe, which had been inherited by 
the countrymen of Thales, Parrnenides, and Aristotle. The 



104 



RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



attention of the learned, from the reign of Domitian down 
to the fall of the Western Empire, was confined almost ex- 
clusively to the accomplishments of rhetoric and declama- 
tion ; pursuits, the effects of which may still be traced in the 
debasement of their style and the general corruption of taste* 
Poetry and the fine arts were neglected, if we except sculp- 
ture, the aid of which was occasionally required to complete 
the magnificence of public buildings. 

The prosperity and confidence secured to the African pro- 
vincials by the victories of Justinian were enjoyed by the 
Church, which, when relieved from the apprehension of ex- 
ternal enemies, directed her cares to the purification of her 
doctrines, and the necessary reforms of discipline. No re- 
markable event occurs in her history till the rise of Moham- 
medanism, when the barbarians of the Arabian deserts issued 
forth to establish the religion of their prophet ; offering to 
the civilized world the choice of conversion, tribute, or death. 
As the generals of the caliph had to encounter a resolute 
opposition on the part of the imperial troops, and made but 
slow progress in reducing the principal towns, the Christians 
were able to maintain their faith long after the greater por- 
tion of the Barbary States had submitted to the Moslem. 
We find, accordingly, that at the distance of 200 years 
from the invasion of Akbah, a number of congregations 
continued to exercise the rites of the Gospel in different 
quarters of the province. Many of the natives, Moors or 
Berbers, had been admitted by baptism into the rank of be- 
lievers ; and these, though they did not appreciate very 
highly the doctrines they professed, would not yield them at 
once to the haughty conquerors. 

The existence of a Christian Church in Barbary, so long 
after the domination of the Saracens was established, may 
be partly ascribed to the toleration which those fanatics 
were permitted to exercise beyond the boundaries of Arabia. 
According to the maxims received from their prophet, the 
holy land which had been first favoured with his revelations 
was to be kept pure from the contamination of infidels ; but 
the same rigid notions did not extend to other countries, if 
possessed by a people who believed in Moses or Jesus 
Christ. All were, indeed, invited to accept the more perfect 
doctrines of the son of Abdallah ; but if they were unwil- 
ling to receive the boon, they might enjoy freedom of con- 



OF THE BAEBARY STATES. 105 

science and of religious worship, upon paying an annual sum 
into the treasury of Mecca or of Bagdad. It is probable, 
therefore, that the many thousands of Africans who swelled 
the list of converts, must have been allured rather than in- 
timidated to declare their belief in the impostor. The minds 
of the multitude were tempted by the invisible as well as 
temporal rewards held forth by the preachers of Islamism ; 
and in the revolution which was thereby produced, every 
member of the new society rose to the natural lev-el of his 
capacity and courage. At length the influence of these 
mixed motives was so powerfully felt, that the Koran super- 
seded the New Testament along the whole southern coast 
of the Mediterranean — a victory of darkness over light 
which has been perpetuated to the present day. 

The architectural monuments of Christianity on the Bar- 
bary shores are much fewer than might have been expected. 
We learn from the Notitia, that there were at one period 
about 600 episcopal sees : though, from want of geographi- 
cal minuteness in the description, it is not possible to de- 
termine the situation of more than 180. It has also been a 
matter of surprise, that, while amid the ruins of these cities 
there remain many altars and other tokens of pagan idolatry, 
the relics of Christian worship should be so scanty. An 
attempt has been made to explain this fact, by referring to 
the great hatred and contempt which the Saracens have 
always entertained towards the Nazarenes, and which have 
led them to obliterate all traces of a faith so little in ac- 
cordance with their own. They are farther incited to this 
work of destruction by the hope of finding coins, or pieces 
of lead and iron ; portions of which metals were used in the 
structure of churches, as also in protecting the repositories 
of the dead. But whatever may have been the motives t© 
which this rage for demolition is to be ascribed, it is admit- 
ted by travellers, that hardly any crosses or other emblems 
of the Gospel are found among the dilapidated walls of tho 
Afriean provinces.* 

It is remarkable that the Barbary States are the only land, 
from which the benefits of the Gospel, after being long and 
fully enjoyed, have been totally withdrawn. The arts which 
were planted there by the colonists of Phoenicia and Rome 



* Shaw's Travels (Edinburgh edition, 1B08), vol, L, p. 27. 



106 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



were lost during the dark reign of ignorance ; and the doc- 
trines which had been diffused by the zeal of Cyprian and 
Augustin were suppressed by the fanaticism of barbarous 
warriors. Five hundred churches, we are told, were over- 
turned by the hostile fury of the Donatists, the Vandals, and 
the Moors ; after which the energy and numbers of the 
clergy gradually decreased, until the people, deprived of 
knowledge and hope, sunk submissively under the Arabian 
yoke. 

About the middle of the eighth century, within fifty years 
after the forces of the Greek emperors were expelled, Ab- 
doulrahman, the governor of Africa, wrote to the Caliph 
Abul Abbas, that the infidels, by their conversion, had ex- 
empted themselves from tribute ; indicating thereby the 
rapid and extensive propagation of the Mohammedan faith. 
During the next age, an attempt was made by the Patriarch 
of Alexandria to revive the dying embers of Christianity. 
Five bishops were sent to Kairwan with the view of rallying 
the scattered members of the Church ; but as these mis- 
sionaries belonged to a schismatical communion, no record 
of their labours has been preserved. It would seem, how- 
ever, that the semblance at least of episcopal authority was 
restored at Carthage ; for, in the eleventh century, the suc- 
cessor of St. Cyprian is known to have implored the protec- 
tion of the Roman pontiff, to shield him at once from the 
furious intolerance of the Saracens and the insubordination 
of his own colleagues. In less than 100 years after that 
incident, the worship of Christ and the succession of the 
apostolical priesthood were abolished throughout the whole 
province ; or if any believers remained, they concealed 
themselves under those compliances with the prevailing 
superstition which were allowed and adopted on the princi- 
ple of convenience. When Charles the Fifth, in the year 
1533, landed on the coast, a few families of Latin Christians 
were encouraged to avow their faith both at Tunis and 
Algiers. But the seed of the Gospel was soon afterward 
entirely eradicated ; and the extensive province from Tripoli 
to the Atlantic has lost all memoiy of the religion and lan* 
guage of Rome.* 

* Gibbon, chapter li. Cardonne, Histoire de PAfrique, tome 
iii., p. 168. In allusion to the communication mentioned above, 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 107 



As the theology of Mohammedanism is not closely con- 
nected with literature, it is in vain that we look for any 
fruits of professional study among the expounders of the 
Koran. Their first efforts, after the Ommiades assumed the 
Western Caliphate, were confined to the elucidation of their 
sacred books, the laws enjoined by their prophet, and to the 
cultivation of poetry ; this last being the amusement or the 
labour of all rude tribes. When, however, their civil wars 
were brought to an end, the Moslem, under the dominion of 
the Abbassides, acquired a taste for science, especially for 
those branches of it which contribute to the success of as- 
tronomy. Almamoun, the seventh of that dynasty, pursuing 
the path which had been marked out for him by his prede- 
cessorsj employed confidential agents in Armenia, Syria, and 
Egypt, to collect the works of the Greek philosophers, 
which he also ordered to be translated into the language of 
Arabia, and illustrated by the most skilful interpreters. 
Humbling himself so far as to become a pupil to the nation 
whom his arms had subdued, he set an example of assiduous 
application to his subjects ; exhorting them to peruse with 
attention the instructive writings which he had procured for 
their learning, and to make themselves masters of the rare 
wisdom which had exalted the countrymen of Plato and 
Euclid. " He was not ignorant," says Abulpharagius, " that 
those are the elect of God, his best and most useful servants, 
whose lives are devoted to the improvement of their intel- 
lectual faculties. The mean ambition of the Chinese, or the 
Turks, may glory in the industry of their hands, or the in- 
dulgence of their sensual propensities ; though these dex- 
terous artists must view with hopeless emulation the hexa- 
gons and pyramids of a beehive, and acknowledge the su- 
perior strength of lions and tigers. The teachers of phi- 
losophy are the real luminaries of the world, which, without 
their aid, would again sink into ignorance and barbarism."* 

The ardour of Almamoun extended itself to the Fatimites 
of Africa, who now deemed it an honour to become the 

this author remarks, that, " II (Abdoulrahman) finit sa lettre, 
par ^presenter a ce prince qu'il ne devoit plus s'attendre a rece 
voir des tributs de l'Afrique ; que tous les peuples avoient em 
brasse le Mahometisme, et avoient fait cesser par-la tous les 
impots auxquels etoient assujettis les infideles." 
* Dynast., p. 160. 



108 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



patrons of the learned. The emirs of provinces were smit- 
ten with a similar emulation, and science met with an ample 
reward in all parts of the Mohammedan empire. The royal 
library is said to have consisted of a hundred thousand man- 
uscripts, elegantly transcribed and splendidly bound, which 
were freely lent to the students in the capital, as well as at 
Kairwan and Alexandria. In every city the productions of 
Arabic literature were copied with much industry, and col- 
lected with great care. The treasures of Africa, however, 
were surpassed by those of Spain, where the Ommiades had 
formed an establishment containing six hundred thousand 
volumes. Cordova, with the adjacent towns of Malaga, 
Almeria, and Murcia, could boast of having produced three 
hundred authors ; while, in the kingdom of Andalusia, there 
were, it is said, no fewer than seventy public libraries. Nor 
was this zeal for the promotion of science confined to one 
family or one age. On the contrary, it continued to adorn 
the ascendency of the Arabians about five hundred years, 
when it was terminated by the great irruption of the Mon- 
gols, who succeeded in spreading a cloud of ignorance and 
barbarism over a large portion of Asia and of the West. 
This period of light in the several caliphates of Bagdad, 
Egypt, and Spain, beginning in the eighth and ending in the 
fourteenth century, coincided with the darkest and most in- 
active ages of Europe ; but since the sun of knowledge 
rose again in the latter division of the globe, the shades of 
intellectual night appear to have fallen with increased ob- 
scurity upon all the kingdoms of Northern Africa.* 

It is not undeserving of remark, that some treatises, of 
which the Greek originals are lost, have been preserved to us 
through the medium of Arabic translations. As mathemat- 
ics, astronomy, and physic, were the favourite subjects of in- 
vestigation among the learned Mohammedans, it is not sur- 
prising that there should have been found in their repositories 
regular versions of the Euclid, Apollonius, Ptolemy, Hippoc- 
rates, and Galen. In the department of metaphysics, as 
also in that of the law of nature and nations, great value was 
attached to the speculations of Plato and Aristotle, those 
distinguished masters of reasoning and founders of the most 

* Abulpharag. Dynast., p. 160, quoted in the Decline and 
Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. lii. 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



109 



celebrated schools in Greece. The Arabians, whose inge- 
nious spirits inclined them to the study of dialectics, preferred 
the philosophy of the latter; and as it afforded a plausible 
instrument for conducting debate, and more especially for 
methodising the conclusions attained by argument or obser- 
vation, it was adopted generally in the seminaries established 
by the Saracens. Useless when applied to the interpretation 
of physical phenomena, it afforded no aid to those who wished 
to detect the principles by which the movements of the materi- 
al universe are regulated ; and, as in all respects it was better 
calculated for the detection of error than for the investigation 
of truth, it is not wonderful, that upon the revival of learning 
in Europe, the natural sciences should have presented them- 
selyes in nearly the same imperfect state in which they had 
been left, many centuries before, by the sages of Athens. 

The climate of Africa, as well as the habits of the orien- 
tal people who now inhabited the upper coast, encouraged 
the pursuits of practical astronomy— a species of knowledge 
which was supposed to confer upon the adepts in its pro- 
founder mysteries an acquaintance with the destiny of indi- 
viduals and of nations. The most costly apparatus was sup- 
plied by the Caliph Almamoun, and he had the satisfaction 
to find that his mathematicians were able to measure a degree 
of the great circle of the earth, and to determine its entire 
circumference at twenty-four thousand miles. But it was in 
chyrnistry that the Saracens made the greatest advances, 
and contributed most to the progress of modern science. 
They first invented and named the alembic for the purposes 
of distillation ; analyzed the substances of the three king- 
doms of nature ; proved the distinction and the affinities of 
acids and alkalis ; and converted the poisonous minerals into 
salutary medicines. It is true, no doubt, that the object of 
their most eager research was the transmutation of metals, 
and the elixir of immortal health ; and that their secret pro- 
cesses were aided by all the powers of mystery, fraud, and 
superstition. But it is equally certain, that the results of their 
numerous experiments tended to widen the boundaries of 
real knowledge ;* to suggest better methods of manipulation ; 

* In the library of Cairo, the manuscripts of medicine and 
astronomy amounted to 6,500, with two fair globes, the one of 
brass, the other of silver. — Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, torn, i., 
p. 417. See Gibbon, chap. Mi 



110 RELIGION AND LITERATURE 



and finally, to open a path into those spacious fields where 
man has reaped the most abundant fruits of ingenuity and per- 
severance. ' - 

It must be acknowledged, that the protracted domination 
of the Turks in Africa, and the destruction of the capital so 
long occupied by the Commanders of the Faithful, have oc- 
casioned the disappearance of the greater jjart of those mon- 
uments by which the scientific triumphs of the Arabs are else- 
where perpetuated. The catalogue of the Escurial still bears 
testimony to the extent of their labours, both as commenta- 
tors and translators ; w T hile lists of works, edited or composed 
by the scholars of Bagdad, prove that the court of the Ab- 
bassides was not less auspicious to the enterprises of literary 
zeal. But of the distinction which belonged to Kairwan in 
this respect, no traces now remain in the savage country of 
which it was once the ornament and the defence. The fame of 
that city, at one time filled with palaces and schools, is only to 
be heard in the form of an echo from contemporaneous writers, 
who flourished in Spain or Italy ; and is, in our days, faintly 
resounded in the compilations of Abulpharagius, Renaudot, 
Fabricius, Asseman, Casiri, and the learned D'Herbelot. 

The preference shown by the African Mussulmans to sci- 
ence, when compared to the lighter and more elegant studies 
of poetry, kept them ignorant of Grecian literature, even 
while they occupied the provinces where it had attained its 
highest eminence. The Arabians, in fact r disdained to use 
any other language than their own, the beauty and copious- 
ness of which they never ceased to extol. Finding among 
their Christian subjects persons whom they could employ to 
form translations, they selected the most distinguished names 
in medicine and astronomy ; but it has been remarked, that 
even in those seats of learning where the Arabic manuscripts 
are most numerous, there has not been discovered the ver- 
sion of a poet, an orator, or an historian. They were con- 
tent that the annals of the world, prior to the era of their 
prophet, should be reduced to a short legend of the Jewish 
patriarchs and the Persian kings. The Greeks, on their part, 
actuated by a foolish vanity, w r ere little disposed to commu- 
nicate to their conquerors those graces of style and diction 
by which their own compositions were recommended to the 
finest taste. Hence the Mohammedans, even after their long 
residence in the Grecian colonies and Roman cities on both 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



Ill 



sides of the Mediterranean, never manifested in their writings 
a simple dignity of manner, a just appreciation of visible or 
intellectual beauty, a chaste delineation of character and pas- 
sion, or an accurate conception of dramatic propriety, even 
in their most splendid fictions. 

The fifteenth century closes our researches into the reli- 
gion and literature of the ancient Barbary States ; because 
at that period the dynasties which had hitherto connected 
them with the language and habits of Western Asia, gave 
way to a ruder sovereignty, emerging from the remote re- 
gions of the North. The domination of the Turks has not 
yet been alleviated by the enjoyment of learned ease, nor en- 
nobled by the pursuits of science. A brighter era has, per- 
haps, begun to dawn on those desolate tracts ; and were the 
example recently given by France cautiously but resolutely 
followed by other European powers, and colonies established 
along the whole line of coast, civilization, so long banished, 
might yet be restored ; Christianity would again resume her 
mild sway over the consciences and morals of the inhabitants ; 
and learning, accompanied by the arts, would once more shed 
her blessings on the land where Cyprian preached and Ter- 
tullian wrote. 

It is not, however, to be concluded, that the Moors and 
Arabs are entirely indifferent to the education of their chil- 
dren, or to the respect which always attends the possession 
of knowledge. Philosophy, mathematics, and medicine, which 
a few centuries ago were their peculiar inheritance, are, it is 
true, very little studied among them. Their wandering life, 
and the oppression of the Turkish government, do not per- 
mit the enjoyment of that quiet, freedom, and security, with- 
out which the pursuit of letters cannot be attended with suc- 
cess. At the age of six, boys are sent to school, where they 
learn to read, to write, and repeat their lessons at the same 
time. They make no use of paper ; but, instead of it, each 
pupil has a thin smooth board, slightly daubed over with whi- 
ting, or fine sand, which may be wiped off and renewed at 
pleasure. 

After they have made some progress in the Koran, which 
is the principal book used in their seminaries, they are initi- 
ated in the several ceremonies of their religion. These ac- 
quirements, which may be attained by all, are seldom ex- 
ceeded by any, even by those who devote their lives to con- 



112 



RELIGION AND LITERATURE 




Coffee-house and School at Byrmadrais. 



templation. The erudition of the Mussulmans is confined to 
some enthusiastic commentaries upon the sacred text, the 
outlines of a very inaccurate- geography, and memoirs of re- 
cent times ; for such histories as are older than their own era 
present nothing but a compound of distorted facts and extrav- 
agant romance. 

Of navigation, a practical acquaintance with which seems 
so essential to their prosperity as pirates and merchants, they 
scarcely know the simplest elements. Their proficiency is 
limited to the rude art of what is called pricking a chart, and 
distinguishing the eight principal points of the compass. 
When Dr. Shaw was in the country, the chief astronomer, 
whose duty it was to regulate the hours of prayer, had not 
trigonometry enough to project a sun-dial. Chymistry, once 
their favourite study, is now confined to the distillation of 
rose-water. The names of Avicenna and Averroes are hard- 



OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



113 



ly known. The quadrants, astrolabes, and other instruments 
left by their ancestors, are looked upon rather as curiosities 
than prized as useful inventions. Algebra and arithmetic, 
which owe so much of their advancement to the ancient 
Arabs, are not familiar, even in their most elementary form, to 
one person in a thousand among their descendants. The la- 
bours of Diophantus and of Albugiani are lost or neglected ; 
and the progeny of the brave and accomplished Saracens 
seem not aware of the obligations under which Europe stands 
to them for having preserved the fruits of Egyptian art and 
Grecian philosophy. 

In such unfavourable circumstances, it cannot be expected 
that any branch of practical knowledge should be properly 
studied. There are not, indeed, wanting many persons who 
prescribe in physic, perform upon a variety of musical instru- 
ments, and engage in other professions which seem to. imply 
some acquaintance with the mathematical and chymical sci- 
ences. Yet, we are assured, such attainments have no foun- 
dation in principle, but are entirely the result of practice, aid- 
ed by great quickness of thought and vigour of memory . The 
abilities of the people are allowed to be considerable ; their 
ingenuity and perseverance are equal to the most arduous 
undertakings ; and the philanthropist has not to deplore the 
absence of any thing except a regular encouragement to in* 
dustry. 



114 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



CHAPTER V. 

The Cyrenaica and Pentapolis. 

Modem Acceptation of the Term Barbary — Desert of Barca — 
District of Marmarica — Its desolate State — Remains of an- 
cient Improvement — Derna — Natural Advantages — Habits of 
the People — Want of good Harbours— Ruins — Opinion of Pa- 
cho — Excavations and Grottoes— Cyrene — Details by Herodo- 
tus — War with Egypt— Successes of the Persians — Form of 
Government — Cyrene subject to Egypt — Persians — Saracens 
— Present State of the Cyrenaica — Marsa Suza — Ruins — Ap- 
ollonia — Monuments of Christianity — Tombs — Theatres — 
Style of Architecture — Amphitheatre — Temples — Stadium — 
Hypogea — Notion of petrified Village — Account by Shaw — 
Remark by Delia Cella — Journey of Captain Smyth — State of 
Ghirza — Fountain of Apollo — Description of it — Examined by 
Capt. Beechey — Plain of Merge — Barca — History of— Doubts 
as to its real Position— Opinion of Delia Cella — Ptolemeta or 
Dolmeita — Fine Situation of the Town— Streets covered with 
Grass and Shrubs — Extent of the City — Ruins — Theatres — 
Magnificent Gateway — Supposed of Egyptian Origin — Hy- 
pothesis of Delia Cella — Disputed by Capt. Beechey — Taucra, 
or ancient Teuchira — Unfavourable as a Seaport — Complete 
Demolition of its Buildings — Ruins of two Christian Church- 
es — Tombs — Variety of Greek Inscriptions — Mode of Burial 
— Bengazi, or Berenice — Miserable Condition of the Place — 
Plague of Flies — Population — Character of Inhabitants — G ar- 
dens of the Hesperides — Glowing Descriptions of them by an- 
cient Writers— Position indicated by Scylax — Labours of Cap- 
tain Beechey — Conclusion. 

It has been already stated that Barbary, according to the 
modern acceptation of the term, may be viewed as compre- 
hending four great pachaliks or governments ; all of which 
profess to own a subjection, more or less restricted, to the 
supreme authority of the Grand Turk. In describing these 
extensive provinces, which stretch from the borders of Egypt 
to the shores of the Atlantic, we shall at first proceed from 
cast to west ; having in some degree prepared for this ar- 
rangement by laying before our readers, in a former volume, 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 115 



all the facts which recent enterprise has brought to light, re- 
garding that perilous desert which, commencing at the left 
bank of the Nile, touches the sea in the neighbourhood of 
the greater Syrtis. The discoveries of Brown, Pacho, and 
others, who in later times have penetrated this dreary wil- 
derness, have rendered familiar to the student of geography 
every thing that can be deemed interesting relative to Siwah, 
the seat of the ancient Ammonium, and those smaller oases 
by which the surface of the surrounding waste is relieved 
and diversified. 

Moving along the coast westward from Alexandria, the 
traveller, upon reaching the 28th degree of longitude, rinds 
himself in the district of Marmarica, where the classical port 
of Paraetonium may still be recognised under the modern ap- 
pellation of Al Bereton. This wild country is not recom- 
mended to the European eye either by its natural beauties or 
its historical remains. The soil, of a parched and barren 
aspect, refuses nourishment to those groves of laurel, myr- 
tle, juniper, and arbutus, which in other parts adorn the 
northern edge of the Desert, and present an air of freshness 
to the mariner who approaches the shore. Traces are not 
wanting, indeed, of happier times, when a race of men pos- 
sessing industry and taste must have occupied its surface. 
Canals, constructed for the purpose of irrigation, cross the 
plain in various directions, even ascending the sides of the 
hills ; and cisterns meant to retain the excess of moisture 
supplied by the rainy season, are still found in such a state 
of preservation as to indicate the plan on which they were 
built, and the materials of which they consisted. 

It admits not of doubt, that, when the Cyrenaica was sub- 
ject to the King of Egypt, this province must have enjoyed 
a considerable share of wealth and importance. The la- 
bours bestowed on agriculture prove at once the extent of 
the population and the value attached to the produce of 
land ; and even at the present day there are everywhere 
vestiges of ancient habitations, which, though they serve 
only to throw an additional gloom over regions condemned 
to desertion and melancholy, afford the best evidence that 
they were at one time blessed with at least a partial civili- 
zation, and with such improvement as belonged to the parent 
state. 

The Gulf of Bomba presents itself as a principal feature 



116 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



in this scene, in which geographers are willing to recognise 
the harbour of Menelaus, mentioned by Herodotus, Strabo, 
and Ptolemy. No positive traces, it is true, can be dis- 
covered of the power or taste of the Cyrenians, though it is 
certain that their dominion extended so far to the eastward. 
The Bedouins, moreover, unite in declaring that, at a little 
distance from the bottom of the bay, there is a lake with a 
small island in the centre, covered with architectural relics 
of a superior order. The statements of such guides, how- 
ever, are for the most part unworthy of trust, not only from 
ignorance, but also from that habit of exaggeration to which 
all rude tribes are addicted. The specimens, accordingly, 
which fell under the notice of M. Pacho, were executed in 
the Egyptian style, with very little regard to elegance, and 
bearing no marks of that refined genius which characterized 
the buildings of the Grecian colonists in the Pentapolis. 

The frontiers of Tripoli and Egypt are, as might be ex- 
pected, extremely unsettled, being beyond the reach of either 
government, and affording a retreat to the thieves, the oat- 
laws, and malecontents of both. Pitching their tents in the 
neighbourhood of the gulf, they make incursions into the ad- 
joining districts, and plunder every one who has the misfor- 
tune to fall in their way. They are ever on the watch for 
the caravans and pilgrims who traverse the Desert on their 
journey to Mecca ; and this is the only route used by the 
people of Morocco, who are said of all Moslem to be the 
most fervently devoted to the prophet. It might seem, in- 
deed, that the equipage of a penitent would not hold out any 
temptation to these rapacious freebooters ; for, wrapped up 
in a tattered cloak, without shoes or head-dress, and carrying 
no provisions besides a bag of barley meal, he might appear 
rather an object of compassion than of plunder, even in the 
eyes of an Arab. But it is well known that under this sem- 
blance of extreme poverty the hajjis often conceal a quantity 
of gold-dust, which, being brought from the interior of Africa 
to Fez, is thence conveyed as an article of commerce to the 
holy city. The hope of seizing this valuable booty subjects 
every traveller to the misery of being stripped and narrowly 
examined ; and it is related, that a few years ago an uncle 
of the Moorish emperor, though escorted by 3,000 men, was 
assailed by this horde of marauders and pillaged of all his 
tteasures. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 117 



The face of the country, from the gulf just described to 
Derna, is very uneven, rocky, and unproductive, with the ex- 
ception of some glens or recesses in the hilly parts, which 
are covered with beautiful evergreens. The territory be- 
longing to the latter place consists of a narrow plain of most 
fertile land, situated upon a small bay, and girdled on the 
south by a range of hills which at either extremity dip into 
the sea. Within this enclosure flourish great numbers of 
palm-trees, whose rough tops are seen spreading over the 
softer forms of the vine, the pomegranate, the fig, olive, and 
apricot. 

In the centre of the plain, and surrounded by gardens full 
of orange and lemon-trees, the exterior of the town is seen 
to great advantage ; but though its streets are more than 
usually regular, the houses are very low and small ; and, 
being built only of pebbles cemented with clay, appear very 
uncomfortable. Their dwellings, indeed, exhibit the most 
painful evidence of the ignorance and idleness of the people ; 
for the adjacent hills abound with excellent limestone, as 
well as with timber of the most suitable description for do- 
mestic architecture. Two abundant springs of pure water 
issue from the rocks which overhang the town ; one of which, 
collected in an aqueduct, supplies the inhabitants, and serves 
to irrigate the contiguous fields ; while the other is conveyed 
to Demensura, a village about a mile distant. This copious 
moisture applied to the surface, combined with that which 
filters from the rocks through the subsoil, gives rise, in the 
glowing climate of Africa, to a strength of vegetation of 
which Europe can present no example. 

Derna, we are told, contains all the elements of an abun- 
dant subsistence for a large population. Excellent meat and 
milk are brought thither by the Arabs, who feed their flocks 
on the neighbouring hills ; the valley is admirably fitted to 
bear all kinds of corn ; the most exquisite fruits abound 
throughout the winter ; and the natives have it in their power 
to carry on a lucrative trade in the honey which is produced 
in great quantities by the prodigious swarms of bees that 
multiply on the rocky heights. But these sources of pros- 
perity are dried up by the withering influence of a despotic 
government. The laws afford no protection ; and confi- 
dence between the sovereign and the people has entirely dis- 
appeared. Besides, the more peaceful residents are never 



118 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



safe from the incursions of the Bedouins, who frequently 
enter the town in armed bands, and indulge in the most 
savage plunder. Fatalism, too, that offspring of Mohamme- 
dan superstition, continually exposes the occupants of the 
town to the ravages of the plague, which is conveyed to them 
through their intercourse with Egypt. A few years ago, 
that destructive disease raged so fiercely, that the number 
of its inhabitants was reduced from 5,000 to 700. 

The natural advantages belonging to this district, which, 
in the hands of a civilized people, might be converted into 
the means of distinguished wealth and power, are, to a cer- 
tain extent, neutralized by the want of good harbours. This 
defect has been considered as the principal reason why no 
foreign nation, desirous of having a permanent footing in 
that section of the Mediterranean, has attempted to estab- 
lish itself at Derna. The bay, it is clear, offers, no secure 
asylum for shipping, while the anchorage-ground is described 
as being intersected by sharp calcareous strata, which would 
soon tear in pieces the strongest cables.* 

A ravine w T hich stretches back from the town into the 
mountains is of considerable extent, having on its sides some 
picturesque gardens adorned with trees. In the rainy season 
a large body of water rushes down into the sea, and is some- 
times so deep and rapid as to become wholly impassable, 
separating one half of the houses from the other. On the 
eastern bank is the principal burying-groundof the place, dis- 
tinguished in particular by a lofty tomb, raised on four arches, 
under which the body is laid, with its usual covering of snow- 
white cement, and a carved turban at the head. Above the 

* Mr. Blaquiere remarks, that " the bay is exposed to east- 
erly and northerly winds, but has excellent anchorage, and ships 
of any class may approach near the shore, it being very bold. 
It is important to observe, that vessels passing by Derna may 
obtain supplies of water and fresh provisions at a very trifling 
expense; and Lord Keith's fleet received supplies from this 
place during the memorable campaign of Egypt. The French 
government, aware of the importance of Derna, sent Gan- 
theaume with his squadron and a body of troops there in 1799, 
to disembark them for the purpose, as he informed the governor, 
of re-enforcing the army of Bonaparte in Egypt ; but his re- 
quest was not acceded to, owing to the jealousy of the pacha, 
and the French admiral did not think it prudent to force a land- 
ing."-- Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 6. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 119 



town a few sepulchres may be observed, though in a very- 
decayed condition, which must have been originally exca- 
vated out of the solid rock. Fragments of columns, and 
some large stones, evidently prepared for more stately build- 
ings than the walls of Arab houses, indicate that Derna once 
accommodated a people to whom the arts and comforts of 
life were not altogether unknown. 

A French author, whose name has been already mentioned, 
is of opinion that the proper city has entirely disappeared, 
and that its place is supplied by five villages ; two of which, 
Eljebeli and Mansour, are erected either immediately over, 
or closely adjoining to, ancient sepulchral grottoes. This de- 
parture from the custom of the Moslem has been justified 
by necessity, or at least by the great usefulness of such ex- 
cavations in so rainy a country ; and hence, without perplex- 
ing themselves with any inquiries as to the primary use of 
these vaults, they have converted them into workshops and 
receptacles for grain. The inhabitants construct their nouses 
in such a manner that these caves are included in their 
yard or court. "Viewed as objects of art, they present 
nothing remarkable, being equally devoid of inscriptions and 
of every other species of ornament. The workmanship, in 
short, is very rude. The grottoes of the latter village are 
hewn in the sides of the mountain, the rocky surfaee of 
which is sometimes bare, and sometimes covered with ver- 
dure. The largest has been converted into manufactories, 
containing one or more looms, perfectly resembling those still 
used in the hamlets of the south of France. 

In the neighbourhood there are other excavations of a sim- 
ilar description. Some at a little distance eastward from the 
city are called Kennissiah, or the Churches. These are 
found at the summit of the steep rocks that border this part 
of the coast, and against which the sea dashes its waves. 
Steps, still seen at intervals, have been formed to the very 
top of the elevation ; but the water which issues from the 
clefts of the rocks, and a carpeting of moss, render the path- 
way slippery, and even dangerous. The ascent being ac- 
complished, there is seen a little semicircular esplanade, 
round which runs a low bench, designed as a resting-place to 
the families of Derna who repair thither to perform their 
funeral-rites. The largest of the grottoes appears to be an 
ancient sanctuary, afterward converted into a Christian chapeL 



120 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



All the others must have been merely tombs ; though the 
irregularity of their position and the inequality of the rocks 
render their appearance extremely picturesque. Arches and 
niches are to be seen in them of every form and dimension, 
from the full Roman semicircle to the perfect ogive of the 
middle ages. 

The district of Derna has acquired a factitious importance 
from a modern arrangement, by which it is made to compre- 
hend the Cyrenaica together with the five Grecian towns 
whence originated the name of Pentapolis. The history of 
Cyrene, the oldest of these establishments, is given by 
Herodotus in his usual manner, mixing fable with facts, and 
connecting real events with the legends of a superstitious 
age. A colony of Spartans having joined the descendants 
of certain Phoenicians in the Island of Calista, engaged in a 
variety of exploits suitable to the spirit of the times, under 
Theras their chief. Migrating from place to place, they at 
length agreed to consult the oracle as to their final resi- 
dence ; when their leader received instructions to build a 
house in Libya. Some time elapsed before the meaning of 
the prophetess was clearlv understood ; nor was it until after 
they had been taught by severe suffering the true import of 
the response, that a party under Battus, the son of Polym- 
nestus, guided by Corobius, a native of Crete, set sail for 
Africa, and landed on an island situated in the Gulf of 
Bomba.* 

Following the directions of the oracle, the new settlers 
removed from Piatea, the island on which thev first took up 
their abode, and making choice of the high ground on the 
shore of the neighbouring continent, built there the city of 
Cyrene, about the third year of the thirty-seventh Olvmpiad, 
nearly six centuries and a half before the reign of Tiberius 
Caesar. After the death of Battus and his son Arcesilaus, 
another migration from Greece added so much to their num- 
bers that it became necessary to extend their borders into the 
Libyan territory. The natives applied to Egypt for help 
against the invaders ; and an army sent by Apries, the Pharaoh 
Hophra of the Scriptures, soon appeared on the western 
edge of the Desert, prepared to check the inroads of the 
Lacedemonian colonists. But the skill and resolution of 

* Herodot. Melpomene, c. 147-169. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 121 



these foreigners proved equal to the emergency which was 
thus created ; for, meeting the Egyptians at a place indicated 
by Herodotus, near the Fountain of Theste, they inflicted 
upon them so severe a defeat, that few were left to convey 
to Memphis the tidings of their calamity. Success, however, 
did not cement the bonds of their union, nor confer security 
upon their rising commonwealth. On the contrary, a series 
of dissensions led to the separation of a large body, who, 
abjuring the authority of their prince, founded a new estab- 
lishment at Barca as the rivals or enemies of their Grecian 
brethren. 

This misunderstanding was soon followed by war, in which 
the Cyrenians sustained some heavy losses. Insurrection 
and murder carried their horrors into both countries, and 
the interposition of Egypt was again implored by Pheretime, 
the mother of Arcesilaus, the fourth of the name. Aryandes, 
the deputy of Darius Hystaspes, listened to the complaint of 
his royal supplicant, and sent to the scene of contention an 
able general at the head of a commanding force ; but before 
adopting decisive measures, he despatched a messenger to 
the people of Barca, desiring to be informed whether they 
were guilty of the crimes laid to their charge. On their ac- 
knowledging that they had put to death the King of Cyrene, 
he gave orders that his troops should advance, accompanied 
by a fleet, which proceeded along the coast. After a long 
siege, Barca fell into the hands of the Persian leader, who, 
in violation of a sacred promise, committed the inhabitants to 
the revenge of the enraged Cyrenians, by whom they were 
butchered in the most inhuman manner. The town itself 
appears to have fallen into decay, and, at no great distance 
of time, to have been relinquished in favour of the port, 
which gradually rose into some consequence. 

From this period till the conquest of the Persian empire, 
the affairs of Cyrene are hardly mentioned in contempora- 
neous history. Aristotle remarks that, in his time, the 
government was republican ; and it is not improbable that, 
after the extinction of their royal line and the success of the 
army directed by Aryandes, the whole country became sub- 
ject to the oriental viceroy, in the form of a province. At 
the time when the dispute took place between the people of 
Carthage and the Cyrenians, concerning the limits of their 
respective domains, it may be presumed, from the account 



122 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



transmitted of it by Sallust, that democracy was already 
established among the descendants of the Spartan emigrants. 
At all events it is asserted by Strabo that they continued to 
enjoy their own laws till Egypt was subdued by the arms of 
Alexander. After the death of the Macedonian hero, their 
country once more became the prey of contending adventur- 
ers, and was at length delivered into the hands of King 
Ptolemy by the general Ophelias. A brother of the Egyp- 
tian monarchy named Magas, reigned in Cyrene fifty years ; 
and it continued to be ruled by the Grecian dynasty of prin- 
ces, now seated on the throne of the Pharaohs, till Ptolemy 
Physcon conferred it upon his illegitimate son Apion, who 
afterward bequeathed it by will to the Romans. The senate, 
it is well known, accepted the bequest, but allowed the sev- 
eral cities of the Pentapolis to be governed by their own 
magistrates ; and the whole territory, in consequence, soon 
became the theatre of civil discord, and exposed to the 
tyranny of ambitious rivals, all of whom aspired to the local 
sovereignty. Lucullus, who visited it during the first Mith- 
ridatic war, restored it to some degree of tranquillity ; but the 
source of dissension and internal broils was not entirely 
removed until the Cyrenaica, about seventy years before the 
birth of Christ, was formally reduced to the condition of a 
Roman province. At a later period it was united in one 
government with the Island of Crete — an arrangement which 
subsisted in the days of Strabo, whose attention, as the geog- 
rapher of the empire, was particularly drawn to its territorial 
distributions. 

It is conjectured that during the period which Cyrene en- 
joyed the greatest prosperity, was when it acknowledged the 
authority of the Egyptian kings who succeeded Alexander — 
an epoch when art was in the highest perfection, and litera- 
ture in equal esteem. For the same reason, it appears prob- 
able, that when the Romans, to punish a tumult, destroyed a 
large portion of the city, they must have spared the temples 
and other public buildings ; for the principal remains which 
meet the eye of the traveller are decidedly Grecian, of an 
early age, apparently still more ancient than even the Ptole- 
maic dynasty. A similar remark applies to the tombs ; al- 
though among them there is a greater variety, embracing ex- 
amples of all styles in the successive eras of African or 
European architecture. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 123 



History does not supply us with the means of determining 
to what causes its final desertion ought to be ascribed ; but 
it admits not of any doubt, that, in the fifth century, it was 
already a heap of ruins, and that its wealth and honours were 
transferred to the episcopal city of Ptolemais. The entire 
devastation of the Greek settlements, however, in that part 
of Africa, was not effected till the reign of Chosroes, the 
Persian emperor, who, in the year 616, overran Syria and 
Egypt, and even advanced as far as the confines of the 
modern Tunis. " His western trophy was erected," says 
Gibbon, " not on the walls of Carthage, but in the neighbour- 
hood of Tripoli ; the Greek colonies were finally extirpated ; 
and the conqueror, treading in the footsteps of Alexander, 
returned in triumph through the sands of the Libyan desert.'' 
The Saracens completed the work of the Persians ; and for 
seven centuries this once fertile and populous region has 
been lost to civilization, to commerce, and even to geograph- 
ical knowledge. For three parts of the year Cyrene is un- 
inhabited, except by jackals and hyenas ; while, during the 
remainder, the wandering Bedouins, too indolent to ascend 
the higher range of hills, pitch their tents chiefly on the low 
ground southward of the summit on which the city is built. 

But most readers will be disposed to take a greater inter- 
est in its present condition than in its ancient history, and to 
read the events and acquisitions of the past in the relics 
which still remain of primitive art and magnificence. The 
latest and best authorities on this subject are Delia Cella, an 
Italian physician, M. Pacho, and the two Beecheys ; all of 
whom examined the Pentapolis in person, and have also pub- 
lished their observations on the interesting country through 
which they passed. 

In proceeding westward along the coast of the Cyrenaica, 
the traveller finds his attention arrested by the ruins of Apol- 
lonia, once a port and seat of merchandise belonging to the 
African Greeks. It is situated in a bay formed by high 
cliffs, which, being very precipitous towards the sea, render it 
almost inaccessible by land, except through those deep ra- 
vines that occasionally open upon the shore. A succession 
of rocks projecting into the water, from east to southwest, 
probably served as the base of the ancient mole, which on 
that side protected the harbour ; and upon the remains of this 
natural bastion are the vestiges of buildings, of which some 



124 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



are also seen rising out of the waves. On the beach are 
the ruins of certain houses of importance ; among which are 
several columns of Pentilic marble, still entire, large blocks 
of wrought granite, and a few arches that seem to have sup- 
ported a magnificent edifice. Near the hills are the remains 
of an aqueduct, constructed for the purpose of conveying 
water to the town ; and upon the stones are numerous in- 
scriptions, which, though defaced by time, serve as records 
of the power of the Romans, and their frequent intercourse 
with this part of Africa.* 

We learn from the same authors, that Greek inscriptions 
are also found among the different fragments of those antique 
piles ; and one, in particular, which the Italian discovered 
near the sea, has given rise to some discussion. He remarks, 
that it was executed in strange and whimsical characters, 
very troublesome to copy ; but which, he thinks, supply a 
memorial of the people, who, at various periods, have fre- 
quented or ruled over Apollonia.t 

This port, the ancient harbour of Cyrene, .and known in 
former times by the appellation of Sosuza, is now denomi- 
nated by the Arabs Marsa-Suza. That it is the celebrated 
port of the chief seat of the Grecian settlements there can 
be no doubt, as well from its magnificent remains as from 
its position, which coincides with that laid down by the best 
geographers ; being 100 stadia from Naustadmos, 160 from 
the promontory Phycus, and 80 from Cyrene. Surrounded 
by precipitous heights towards the interior, its principal use at 
present is to afford an asylum to the natives, when pursued 
by those bands of robbers who dwell near the Gulf of Bomba, 
and who sometimes extend their predatory excursions as far 
as the recesses of the mountains which form the western 
boundary of Derna.J 

The actual condition of this remarkable place affords a 
strong instance in support of the opinion advanced by most 
travellers in Northern Africa, that the Mediterranean is«en- 
croaching fast on its southern shores, while it is gradually 

* Delia Cella, p. 160. A D. . . E A E. S. . . E V. . .— 

Ti ■■• DE.M. . .— CVMIC — - 

A E.— D V. 

C V N . . . 

f Beechey, p. 568-580. Delia Cella, p. 160. 
t Delia Cella, Scyl Perip. ; Strabo, lib. xvii. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 125 



receding from those of Italy, Dalmatia, and the Morea. 
From this cause, portions of the elevated ground on which 
the front of the town was built, are continually falling in ; 
the scene or stage of the principal theatre outside the walls 
has been wholly swept away by the waves ; and the tombs 
along the beach are commonly filled with water. The public 
edifice now mentioned appears to have rested partly on the 
natural rock and partly on the citadel ; and the seats must 
have been approached from above, there being no entry at 
either side. As the ranges of the subsellia are still very per- 
fect, the effect of the building, as it now presents itself, is that 
of a stupendous flight of steps leading down from the bank on 
which they repose to the level of the orchestra, long ago 
washed away by the sea. 

The ground-plans of several other buildings in Apollonia 
may still be traced with no small degree of certainty. Those 
of the Christian churches in particular are very decided, as 
well as the remains of a noble structure, of a similar form, at 
the western extremity of the town. The handsome marble 
columns, that now encumber the edifices which they once 
adorned, afford evident proofs that no expense had been 
spared in the erection of these magnificent temples ; for the 
material of which they are composed is not found in this part 
of Africa, and must have been transported from a great dis- 
tance at an immense cost. On the centre of the shafts of 
some of these pillars, Captain Beechey observed the figure 
of a large cross engraved : they have all been originally 
formed of single pieces, some of which still remain entire, 
and would, he thinks, be no inappropriate ornaments to 
churches of modern construction. The reflection which rises 
in the mind of the gallant officer is at once natural and be- 
coming ; he regards these splendid monuments of Christian- 
ity, in a country labouring under ignorance and supersti- 
tion, as affording pleasing memorials of early piety, and recal- 
ling the active times of Cyprian and Anastasius, of the philo- 
sophic Synesius— himself a Cy reman— and other distin- 
guished actors in those memorable scenes which Northern 
Africa once presented to an admiring world. But the grass 
is now growing over the altar-stone, and the munificence 
which gave birth to these stately buildings is visible only in 
their ruins. 

But Cyrene itself is still more interesting than its port 
L 2 



126 THE CYRENAICA AND PEXTAPOLIS. 



Its position, we are told, is on the edge of a range of hills, 
about 800 feet in height, descending in terraces one below 
another, till they are each met by the level ground, which 
forms the summit of the next declivity. At the foot of the 
upper one, on which the city was built, is a fine sweep of 
table-land, most beautifully varied with wood, among which 
are scattered tracts of barley and corn, and meadows covered 
a great part of the year with verdure. Ravines, the sides of 
which are thickly planted with trees, intersect the country in 
various directions, and supply channels for the mountain- 
streams in their passage to the sea. This elevated platform 
extends east and west as far as the eye can follow it ; while 
the lower range, which runs along the whole coast of the 
Cvrenaica, is likewise richly wooded, and diversified with 
deep glens. The height of the latter may be estimated at 
1,000 feet ; and the citv, which was placed on the upper one, 
must have been about 1,800 feet above the level of the Medi- 
terranean, of which it commanded a most extensive view. 
The prospect, indeed, is described as truly magnificent, and 
is said to remain in the mind undiminished in interest by a 
comparison with others, and to be as strongly depicted there 
after a lapse of years, as if it were still before the eyes in all 
the distinctness of reality. 

It has been stated that the sides of the mountains did not 
descend abruptly to the plain below, but in terraces, one un- 
der another, which at length terminate on the level of the 
beach. The inhabitants have skilfully taken advantage of 
this formation, and shaped the ledges into roads, leading 
along the side of the hill, which seem to have originally com- 
municated with one another by means of steps cut in the 
rock. These drives are to this day distinctly lined with the 
marks of chariot-wheels, deeply indented in their stony sur- 
face. In most instances, the cliffs rise perpendicularly from 
one side of these aerial galleries, and are excavated into innu- 
merable tombs, which have been formed with immense labour 
and care, — the greater number being adorned with architec- 
tural facades built against the polished rock, and thereby con- 
tributing much to the beauty of the scene. The outer sides 
of the esplanades, where the descent takes place from one 
range to another, are ornamented with sarcophagi and mon- 
umental tombs ; while the whole space between the terraces 
must have been completely filled with similar structures. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 127 



These, as well as the excavated sepulchres, exhibit very su- 
perior taste and execution ; and the clusters of dark-green 
furze and slender shrubs, with which they are now partly 
overgrown, give, by their contrast of form and colour, an ad- 
ditional effect to the multitude of white buildings that spring 
up in the midst of them. 

The tombs generally consist of a single chamber ; at the 
end of which, opposite the doorway, is an elegant facade, 
almost always of the Doric order, cut in the rock with consid- 
erable taste and exactness. It usually represents a portico ; 
and the number of columns by which it was supported varied 
according to the length of the room. Between the pillars 
were niches cut deep into the mountain, for the reception of 
the ashes or bodies of the deceased ; the dimensions of which 
were also regulated by the height of the columns and their dis- 
tance from one another. In several of these vaults were dis- 
covered remains of painting, exhibiting historical, allegorical, 
and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those found 
at Herculaneum and Pompeii ; some of which, we are assured, 
were by no means inferior to the best specimens preserved 
in these cities. It appears, moreover, that the different 
members of the architecture must, in many instances, have 
been coloured ; examples which may be adduced in confirma- 
tion of an opinion founded on the recent discoveries at Ath- 
ens, that the Greeks, like the Egyptians, were in the habit 
of staining their buildings, and thereby sullying the modest 
hue of their Parian and Pentilic marbles. 

In a ravine on the western side of the city were likewise 
found a number of tombs, similar in most respects to those 
already described. In truth, the various terraces formed 
into roads seem to prove that the people of Cyrene delighted 
in streets of sepulchral monuments, and were wont to take 
their pastime surrounded by the mouldering bodies of their 
ancestors. In passing along the galleries here, Mr. Beechey 
discovered one instance of a mixture of two orders of archi- 
tecture in the same building — the portico being raised on 
Ionic columns surrounded with a Doric entablature. 

But, if the excavated tombs are objects of much interest, 
those also which have been built on every side of this an- 
cient town are no less entitled to notice and admiration. 
Several months, it is said, might be employed in making 
drawings of the most conspicuous of these elegant structures ; 



128 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS, 



many of which are erected in imitation of temples, although 
there are scarcely two of them exactly alike. A judicious 
observer might select from these mausoleums examples of 
Grecian and Roman taste through a long succession of inter- 
esiing periods ; and the progress of the architectural art 
might thus be satisfactorily traced, from its early state among 
the first inhabitants of Cyrene, to its final decay in the hands 
of Italian colonists during the decline of the empire. Innu- 
merable busts and statues originally adorned these mansions 
of the dead, and many of them are still seen half-buried be- 
neath heaps of rubbish and soil at the foot of the buildings, 
of which they once occupied the most elevated parts. Those 
entirely above ground are usually observed broken into sev- 
eral pieces, or so much mutilated as to have become mere 
trunks ; but there is no doubt that great numbers are still 
existing in a perfect state, very little sunk under the surface, 
which might be procured at a trifling expense. Mr. Beechey 
mentions, in regard to these remains of art, an absurd incon- 
sistency in the Arab character. The very same statue which 
they would walk over day after day, without ever honouring it 
with a glance in passing, will in all probability be shivered to 
atoms the moment it becomes an object of particular notice.* 

It need scarcely be observed, that the style of architecture 
in which the monumental tombs have been constructed varies 
according to the date of the building, and apparently, also, to 
the consequence of the persons interred in them. The order 
employed, more especially in the earlier examples, is for the 
most part Doric. From certain circumstances it is conclu- 
ded, that the custom of burying the entire corpse very gen- 
erally prevailed in Cyrene and other cities of the Pentapolis ; 
and this is one of the few instances in which any analogy is 
perceived between the customs of the Grecian colonists and 
those of the Egyptians. It is certain, however, that the 
practice of burning the bodies, and of preserving the ashes 
in urns, prevailed also among the inhabitants of the Cyre- 
naica, as it did in the other states whose origin was similar. 

But the tombs are not the only structures of which the 
plan and the materials may still be recognised. The ground 
on which the city stood is, indeed, so greatly encumbered 
with decayed vegetables, and a thick stratum of new soil, 
that it is no easy matter to detect the numerous columns and 

* Proceedings, &c, p. 600, &c. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 129 



statues which lie half-buried in its bosom. Mr. Beechey and 
his friends discovered the remains of two theatres ; but so 
much was the mould now* mentioned heaped about the walls, 
that, had it not been for the semicircular shape of the green 
masses which presented themselves to the eye, no one could 
have suspected they concealed the ruins of large edifices. 
The pillars which once ornamented the scene in the larger 
of these buildings had been thrown from the basement on 
which they formerly stood, and were scattered in various 
places along the whole length of the range. Among them 
were several statues, which appeared to have been portraits, 
executed with great freedom and taste, and beyond were the 
Corinthian capitals of the columns, which had rolled in their 
fall to some distance from their position. These, as well as 
the bases, were composed of a fine white marble, the polish 
of which was in general very perfect ; and the shafts, con- 
sisting of a coloured species, were formed of single pieces, 
which added considerably to the effect produced by the cost- 
liness of the material. The able artist, on whose description 
we now rely, thinks that this theatre must have been Roman, 
and is disposed to ascribe it to the time of iVugustus or of 
Hadrian. The whole depth of the building, including the 
seats, the orchestra, and the stage, appears to have been 
about 150 feet, and the length of the scene about the same. 
The porticoes in the rear of the seats are 250 feet long, and 
the space between these and the colonnade at the back of the 
scene, is of equal extent. The edifice would thus appear to 
have been comprehended in a square of 250 feet, not inclu- 
ding the depth of the portico behind the subsellia, which, it is 
admitted, is rather uncertain. Like many of the Grecian 
theatres, it has been built against the side of a hill, which, as 
at Apollonia, forms the support of the seats, the highest 
range of which must have been on a level with the platform 
at the back, from whence the spectators descended to the lower 
benches. The situation of this place of amusement is said to 
be extremely delightful, and worthy of a structure which, 
when perfect, must have been a very beautiful object : the 
richness of the materials of which the columns were formed 
adding greatly to its effect, in respect of splendour, if not pre- 
cisely in point of taste.* 

* Beechey, p. 503. We quote the opinions of Mr. Beechey, 
the Captain's brother. 



130 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



The plan of the other theatre varies materially from that 
of the one now described, and its proportions are also very 
different. Instead of being approached from above, like the 
other, there are five passages by which the spectators enter- 
ed, and two communicating with some place beneath the 
front of the stage, which, however, are so much blocked up 
with rubbish, that it is impossible to explore them. Some 
rows of seats were found hollow — a fact which seemed to 
give a degree of confirmation to a statement mentioned by 
Vitruvius, that the Greeks were in the habit of placing in the 
interior of their benches in public buildings a species of bra- 
zen vase, by means of which the sound was considerably im- 
proved. No materials remain to confirm the conjecture ; 
for, although the vacant spaces in the subsellia were carefully 
formed, as if with the view of accomplishing some object, 
nothing was found in them except a few species of pottery. 

No part of the stage, if we omit the lower section of a 
wall, is now standing. The width of the orchestra, where it 
joins the proscenium, is not more than sixty feet, and its 
depth about eighty, while the space occupied by the seats 
could not be more than forty. There are, however, extensive 
remains of certain buildings which must have been attached 
to the eastern side of this theatre ; so large, indeed, as to 
have enclosed public walks, and to have been ornamented 
with numerous porticoes and statues. Among these last there 
is one which, from the Ammon's head, and the eagles which 
decorate the armour, is supposed to represent a Ptolemy ; 
while near it is another, which must have been meant to do 
honour to a Berenice, an Arsinoe, or a Cleopatra. 

On the outside of the wails, westward of the ancient city, 
are the ruins of an amphitheatre, which must likewise have 
been a striking object. It has been constructed on the verge 
of a precipice, commanding a most extensive and beautiful 
view, and receiving in all its purity the freshness of the 
northern breeze, so grateful in an African climate. Part of 
it, as usual, is built against the side of a hill, which support- 
ed the seats fronting the precipice ; and that portion of it 
which bordered upon the verge of the Desert rose abruptly 
from the edge, like a stupendous wall, overlooking the coun- 
try below. The foundations of this part of the edifice ap- 
pear to have been remarkably strong, and are even now very 
complete ; but the subsellia raised upon them have been tuna- 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 18*1 



bled from their places, and lie around in broken masses. On 
the side which has the hill for its basis nearly forty rows of 
seats are still remaining, one above the other ; and though 
each of these is fifteen inches in height, the edge of the pre- 
cipice appears from the upper range to be quite close to the 
lowest, although in fact the whole of the arena, not less than 
100 feet in diameter, intervenes between them. There are 
traces of a Doric colonnade along the margin of the cliff, 
forming the north side of one of the enclosed spaces con- 
tiguous to the amphitheatre. The capitals are said to be 
beautifully executed. 

As few remains of dwelling-houses are observed on the 
northern side of the town, it is supposed not to have been 
very closely inhabited. There seems, however, to have been 
no want of public edifices ; for travellers have distinguished 
the ruins of two spacious temples, as well as of the stadium, 
that ornament of Grecian towns. Of the former, the largest 
is 169 feet in length and 61 in breadth. The architecture is 
Doric, of the early style ; and the capitals, though much de- 
faced, still exhibit proofs of excellent taste and workmanship. 
The smaller temple, besides being built on rising ground, 
has the additional elevation of a very solid basement, consid- 
erably above the level of the surface. The dimensions are 
111 feet by 50. The capitals of some fluted columns lying 
at the bottom of the eminence are of no decided order, and 
present, it is thought, a mixture of Greek and Egyptian — a 
combination which will not be deemed improbable within 
the precincts of Gyrene. The stadium has felt more than 
either of the fanes now described the wasting hand of time ; 
the course is overgrown with the rankest vegetation, and 
nearly all the masonry has disappeared. The length is some- 
what more than 700 feet, the width being about 250 ; and, 
like the theatres, it seems to have had some contiguous 
buildings subsidiary to its uses, and comprehended in its plan. 
Still, it is allowed, that in the tombs are preserved the finest spe- 
cimens of Grecian art now extant in Cyrene ; nearly the whole 
of this famed city, including its public and private structures, 
being reduced to an undistinguishable mass of rubbish. 

But there is reason to doubt whether many of the grottoes 
which wear the appearance of repositories for the dead, 
were not rather originally intended as abodes for the living. 
This is the opinion of M. Pacho, who found in a mountain 



132 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



between Cyrene and Apollonia a vast number of excavations,- 
which had not in his eyes the slightest indication of a se- 
pulchral design. Some of them are so capacious that you 
may enter them on horseback. Several are adorned in front 
with a monolithic portico, and an open hall ; others have- 
either a straight or a winding avenue ; and one of them is dis- 
tinguished by a handsome staircase, cut in the solid rock y 
and adorned with an arched roof of masonwork. This ex- 
pensive canopy, he thinks, was intended to shelter from the 
rains the inhabitants of Cyrene, who came hither to inspect 
the merchandise sent from their port ; for, " doubtless," he- 
adds, " these large hypogea were magazines." They have 
for many years offered a convenient residence to the Arabs 
of Barca ; and whole tribes have successively taken up their 
abode in them. Hordes of banditti, it^s true, have occasion- 
ally invaded these peaceful retreats ; have driven away their 
occupants, and made them a receptacle for their plunder ; but 
their ascendency has never been of long duration. The 
neighbouring tribes have united ; the robbers have been dis- 
persed ; and the lawful proprietors have gained possession of 
their troglodytic town.* 

In the ravine beyond the western limits of the city, this 
traveller discovered an excavation which, in point of magni- 
tude and beauty, surpassed all that he had examined in any 
other quarter. It appears to be situated about halfway be- 
tween the bottom of the dell and the level of the plain above, 
from both of which there are regular approaches cut with in- 
finite care. Having entered the cavern, he found himself in 
a vast quadrangle surrounded with a low bench. At the far- 
ther end is a square altar, above which is a larger niche, de- 
signed, as he imagined, to receive the statue of the presiding 
deity. The walls are overgrown with a rank vegetation, which 
it is necessary to tear down in order to decipher the inscrip- 
tions with which they are covered. It may be seen at the first 
glance that they belong to very different epochs ; every cor- 
ner of the excavation being bedaubed in the most fantastic 
manner. Some are deeply engraved in letters of five or six 
inches long, while others are in so small a character as to be 
scarcely perceptible. Besides which, here and there occur a 
number of unconnected names, such as Aristoteles, Alexan- 



* Voyage dans la Marmarique, p. 193. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 133 



der, Jason, and Agathocles. It would seem, continues M. 
Pacho, that the place was an excavated temple, consecrated 
probably to one of the principal divinities of Cyrene, and that 
strangers came to visit it in the discharge of a sacred duty. 
The situation, too, of this religious monument, near the only 
forest which is found in the vicinity of the town, appears to 
accord perfectly with the presumed object and origin of this 
wood ; leading back the mind to the very earliest period of 
the Greek colony in Libya. The majestic cypresses which 
compose it are thus viewed as the descendants of those trees 
which the chief of the Battiades consecrated to the service 
of the gods.* 

It is not improbable that the scenes now described gave rise 
to the fiction of the " petrified village" mentioned by Shaw, 
which for a time excited no small interest among the philos- 
ophers of Europe. The Tripoline ambassador at London, 
to whom inquiries were addressed relative to so strange a phe- 
nomenon, reported, on the authority of a friend who had been 
upon the spot, that it comprehended a large town of a circu- 
lar figure, which had several streets, shops, and a magnificent 
castle belonging to it ; that his informant saw different sorts 
of trees, but mostly the olive and the palm, all turned into a 
bluish or cinder-coloured stone ; that there were men also in 
different postures and attitudes, some of them exercising 
their trades and occupations, others holding bread and similar 
articles in their hands ; that of the women some were giving 
suck to their children, while others were sitting at their knead- 
ing-trougbs ; that in entering the castle there was a man ly- 
ing upon a gorgeous bed of stone, with guards standing at the 
doors armed with pikes and spears ; and that he observed 
different sorts of animals, such as camels, oxen, asses, horses r 
sheep, and birds, all of them converted into stone, and of the 
same bluish colour. Some of the figures were said to want 
their hands, others a leg or an arm. It was farther related, 
that several pieces of petrified money had been brought from 
thence ; not a few of which were as large as an English shil- 
ling, with a horse's head on the one side and unknown charac- 
ters on the other.! 

* Voyage, &c, p. 230. Modern Traveller, Africa, vol. i., p. 174. 
t Travels or Observations relating to several Parts of Barba* 
ry, voL i., p. 286, Edinburgh edition, 1808. 

M 



134 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



The Necropolis of Cyrene, with its numerous statues and 
chambers, variously coloured, might well suggest to the super- 
stitious mind of an ignorant Bedouin the notion of a petrified 
town. Delia Cella affords the materials of a different expla- 
nation, by alluding to the depositions which take place in the 
natural caves of calcareous mountains. He visited one of 
these near Safsaf, which, he remarks, had acquired greac ce- 
lebrity from the credulity of the neighbouring inhabitants, 
who, in the stalactites, discover the images of petrified gods, 
men, and monsters, every one giving to each fantastical form 
the name which suits his fancy.* 

Dr. Shaw had been induced to perform a dangerous jour* 
ney to Hamam, in Numidia, having been assured by the 
Arabs, with the most solemn asseverations, that a number of 
tents might be seen there, surrounded by cattle of different 
kinds converted into stone. On arriving, however, at the 
place, he had the mortification to find that all the accounts 
which he had heard were idle and fictitious, and without the 
smallest foundation except in the extravagant brains of the 
natives. He tells us, moreover, that about forty years prior 
to the time at which he wrote, M. le Maire, the French con- 
sul at Tripoli, made inquiry, at the desire of his court, into 
the truth of the popular rumour as to petrified bodies at Ras 
Sem. The janizaries, who, in collecting the tribute, travel 
every year through the district in question, promised to grat- 
ify his wishes ; adding, however, that, as an adult person 
would be too heavy to carry, they could only undertake to 
bring him the body of a young child. After a great many 
difficulties, delays, and disappointments, they at length pro- 
duced a little Cupid, which they had found, as he afterward 
learned, among the ruins of Leptis, and, to conceal the de- 
ceit, they broke off the quiver and some of the other charac- 
teristics of this insidious deity. Adepts in fraud, they repre- 
sented to the Frenchman that, if they had been detected in 
the act of putting into the hands of an infidel one of the un- 
fortunate Mussulmans whose remains they had visited, they 
should certainly have been strangled by their countrymen ; 
and, upon the ground of this frightful hazard, they raised a 
charge of 1,000 dollars. In short, his most earnest inquiries, 
supported by the offer of great rewards, brought nothing to 



* Travels in Barbary, p. 163, 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 135 



light. After sending a number of individuals expressly, and 
at no small cost, to make discoveries, he could never learn 
that any traces of walls, buildings, animals, or articles of fur- 
niture, were to be seen within the verge of the petrified dis- 
trict.* 

Captain Smyth, of his majesty's ship the Adventure, like 
the learned author just named, was prevailed upon to travel 
as far as Ghirza on a similar mission ; being informed by the 
Sultan of Fezzan, who had recently returned from a marau- 
ding expedition, that he passed through the desolate city, 
which abounded in spacious buildings, and was ornamented 
with such a profusion of statues as to have all the appearance 
of an inhabited place. This account, supported by several 
collateral circumstances, impressed him with the idea that it 
must be the celebrated Ras Sem, and consequently inspired 
him with a strong desire to repair thither. v After a toilsome 
march of nine days' duration, he was sorely disappointed on 
seeing some badly-constructed houses, of comparatively mod- 
ern date, and a few tombs at a small distance. On ap- 
proaching the latter, he found them of a mixed style, and in 
very indifferent taste, decorated with ill-proportioned columns 
and clumsy capitals. The regular architectural divisions of 
frieze and cornice being neglected, nearly the whole depth 
of the entablatures is loaded with absurd representations of 
warriors, huntsmen, camels, horses, and other animals, in low 
relief. The human figures are miserably executed and gen- 
erally small, varying, even on the same tomb, from three feet 
and a half to twelve inches. f 

In the neighbourhood the captain observed a monumental 
obelisk of heavy proportions, and near it four tombs, present- 
ing a similar style and ornaments with those already descri- 
bed. They are remarkable, however, as combining more dis- 
tinctly a mixture of Greek and Egyptian architecture, and 
are placed so as to give a singular interest to the scene. A 
wandering Bedouin, who had resided some time in the valley, 
produced a fine medal, in brass, of the elder Faustina, which 
he had found in the immediate vicinity. The tombs appear 
to have remained uninjured by the action of either the sun or 

* Travels, vol. i., p. 292. 

f Captain Smyth's Journal is printed in Captain Beechey's 
work, p. 504-512, 



136 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



the atmosphere, and therefore the sculpture, if such it ought 
to be called, continues in its original completeness. 

As these edifices are near the Fezzan road, people from 
the interior have been occasionally induced to examine them ; 
and, being the only specimens of the art they ever saw, they 
have, not unnaturally, on their arrival at the coast, described 
them in glowing colours. It is the opinion of Captain Smyth, 
that it must have been this nucleus, as he calls it, which soon 
swelled into a petrified city, and, at length, not only attracted 
the curiosity of Europe, but also obtained general belief in 
Africa. It has been deemed a species of pilgrimage, as the 
caravans pass, to resort thither, and to utter or inscribe a 
prayer for the unhappy Moslem who are confined to that 
dreary solitude in the form of stone. Notwithstanding the 
diminutive size and despicable execution of the carved figures, 
the Turks view them with admiration and respect, extolling 
the powers of art which, in its imitations, can approach so 
near to the wonderful works of nature !* 

Such was the only direct issue of the journey to the petri- 
fied city at Ghirza ; in the course of which, however, though 
the result fell short of his expectations, more was obtained 
and accomplished by Captain Smyth than has yet rewarded 
the exertions of any other travellers who have compared the 
actual state of particular districts with the florid descriptions 
given of them by the Arabs. 

As an apology for the deception practised by the natives 
on themselves, as well as on strangers, it is proper to ob- 
serve, that, in the opinion of Mr. Beechey, who accompanied 
his brother, all the excavated tombs were originally adorned 
with paintings in body-colour, representing compositions 

* It is still more probable, that the idea of a petrified city has 
been suggested by the appearance of Cyrene and other towns 
of the Pentapolis. Bruce, who also visited Ras Sem, remarks, 
" I was not fortunate enough to discover the petrified men and 
horses, the women at the chum, the little children, the cats, 
the dogs, and the mice, which his barbarian excellency assured 
Sir Hans Sloane existed there ; yet, in vindication of his ex- 
cellency, I must say that, though he propagated, he did not in- 
vent this falsehood ; the Arabs who conducted me maintained 
the same stories to be true till I was within two hours of the 
place, when I found them to be false." It is deserving of notice, 
that the Ras Sem of Shaw and Bruce cannot now be identified. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 1ST 



either of figures or animals. The prevailing teints are blue 
and red. The triglyphs and some other members of the 
facades were invariably stained blue, the mouldings and other 
details red ; while the larger parts of the entablature seem to 
have been uniformly left plain. In an excavated tomb with 
a Doric portico, there was found a series of beautiful little 
subjects painted on the frieze of an interior facade, each com- 
position occupying one of the metopes. The outline of these 
highly-finished groups has beon very carefully put in with 
red ; the local colour of the flesh and the draperies has then 
been filled in with body-colours, and the lights touched on 
sharp with a full and free pencil, greatly resembling the fine 
execution of the paintings at Herculaneum and Pompeii. 

No object at Gyrene appeared more interesting than the 
Fountain of Apollo, whence issues a stream well calculated 
to refresh the weary traveller. At the foot of the hill which 
supplies the water is an excavated chamber, from which there 
is an opening cut into the interior of the rock, to a distance 
not yet ascertained ; and along this channel the current flows 
with great rapidity, till it precipitates itself into a basin form- 
ed to receive it on a level with the floor of the apartment. 
On one side of the cascade are two cellars, or rather one di- 
vided into two parts ; and in the farther section is a second 
basin, sunk below the level of the chamber, which appears to 
have originally communicated with the stream by means of 
a small aperture in the rock just above it. This reservoir, it 
is thought, must have been originally devoted to the service 
of the priests, who had the charge of the sacred fountain, in 
the performance of their religious ceremonies. Nearly op- 
posite to it is what appears to be the principal entrance, 
where was found a tablet broken into two pieces, and also 
the fragment of a fluted column. On the former, which is 
of white marble, are sculptured three female figures in ex- 
cellent style, and finished with all the delicacy and taste of 
the most refined periods. In front of the approach, two por- 
ticoes appear to have been erected ; and on a part of the clifT, 
at right angles with the face of the precipice, is an inscription 
in Doric Greek recording the name of the founder. 

The channel or passage, we are told, is formed entirely in 
the rock from which the stream issues, and continues in an 
irregular course more than a quarter of a mile into the heart 
pf the mountain. The sides and roof of it are flat, where 
M 2 



138 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



time and the action of the current have not corroded the sur- 
face ; but the bottom is encumbered with stones bedded fast 
in the clay. The height in general was about five feet ; 
though in some places where there appear to have originally- 
been flaws or fissures in the stone, the roof was so much 
raised as to enable the visiters to stand upright. After ad- 
vancing about thirteen hundred feet, it becomes so low that a 
man cannot proceed farther without creeping upon his hands 
and knees, and then finishes in a small aperture scarcely a 
foot in diameter, beyond which it is not possible to proceed.* 
Captain Beechey mentions a singular fact as to inscrip- 
tions found on the sides of the channel into which he and 
his friends had adventured. They observed that the clay, 
washed down in considerable quantities by the current, was 
occasionally plastered against the sides, and smoothed very 
carefully with the palm of the hand. In this they thought 
they perceived something like letters, which upon a more 
minute examination they discovered to be sentences in the 
Greek language ; several of which, from their dates, must 
have remained on the wet clay more than fifteen hundred 
years. The preservation of these, says the gallant author, 
" may certainly be accounted for by the dampness of the 
place, and its extreme seclusion, which would conspire to 
prevent the clay from cracking and dropping off, and from 
being rubbed off by intruders ; but we were not prepared to 
meet with inscriptions engraved on so yielding a substance, 
and certainly not to find that, having once been written, they 
should have remained on it down to the present day, as per- 
fect as when they were left there by those whose visit they 
were intended to commemorate. They consist, of course, 
chiefly of a collection of names, many of which are Roman ; 
and the earliest of the most conspicuous dates which we re- 
marked and copied (for it would take whole days to read and 
copy them all), were those of the reign of Dioclesian. We 
could collect no other facts from those which we read, than 
that a priest appears to have officiated at the fountain after 

* " The mouth of this fountain," says Delia Cella, " is very 
ingeniously excavated, and is connected with a tunnel extending 
far into the heart of the hill, into which I penetrated a few yards, 
notwithstanding the assurances of my guides that it was the 
usual residence of malignant spirits." 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 139 



Cyrene became a Roman colony, whose name and calling 
are usually written after the name of the visiter. They are, 
in general, very rudely scratched with a point of any kind — 
a sword or knife perhaps, or the stone of a ring — and often 
with the point of the finger. We observed a few Arabic in- 
scriptions among the rest ; but were so much occupied in 
reading over the Greek ones, in order to gain some intelli- 
gence respecting the fountain, which might serve to throw 
light upon the period at which the channel was excavated, 
or other questions of interest, that we neglected to copy 
them. There is an appearance in one of the Greek inscrip- 
tions of an allusion to the name of Apollo, the deity to whom 
we suppose this fountain to have been sacred ; but the letters 
are not sufficiently clear to establish the fact decidedly, al- 
though we do not see what other sense could be given to 
the words in question with so much probability of being that 
which the writer intended ; and it is plain that the sentence, 
as it now stands, is incomplete. We could not succeed in 
finding any Greek dates of antiquity, although the Greek 
names are very numerous ; but a person accustomed to the 
many negligent ways of writing the character, with plenty 
of time and light at his disposal, might probably succeed in 
finding Greek inscriptions of more interest than we were able 
to discover in the mass of writing here alluded to — a great 
portion of which, as might naturally be expected, consists 
of rude scrawls and hasty scratches. That the fountain con- 
tinued to be an object of curiosity, and probably of religious 
veneration, after the cession of the country to the Romans, 
may, however, be inferred from what we have stated ; and 
a minimum may at least be established with respect to the 
date of the excavated channel, if we cannot ascertain the 
precise time of its formation, or whether it was cut at one or 
several periods. Some hours had elapsed from the time of 
our entering to that of our reappearance ; and we really be- 
lieve that the Arabs of the place, who had collected them- 
; selves round the fountain to see us come out, were extremely 
disappointed to find that no accident had befallen any one of 
the party, in spite of the demons so confidently believed to 
haunt its dark and mysterious recesses."* 

* Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the Northern Coast 
I of Africa, &c. By Captain F. W. Beechey, R.N., F.R.S., p. 



140 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



Leaving Cyrene, the traveller whose face is turned towards 
Tripoli soon finds himself in the midst of beautiful scenery, 
and on the road to the magnificent plain of Merge, in which 
was situated the celebrated town of Barca, the second in im- 
portance of the whole Pentapolis. The path, deeply marked 
with chariot-wheels, and thereby indicating an extensive in- 
tercourse when occupied by civilized men, leads through 
valleys for the most part well cultivated, and ornamented 
with copses of pine, cedar, laurel, lauristinus, cypress, myrtle, 
box, arbutus, and numerous stately trees, which were flourish- 
ing in the greatest luxuriance. Among these the convolvulus 
and honeysuckle twined themselves ; and red and white 
roses, marigolds, and other flowers, with a great variety of 
beautiful ferns, were everywhere scattered over the contigu> 
ous hills. The forms of the landscape were at the same time 
remarkably picturesque ; and here and there a ruin of some 
ancient fortress, towering above the wood on the edge of a 
precipice, contributed to give a romantic character to the 
scene. 

Barca, though perhaps more ancient than the establish- 
ment of the Greek colony, and unquestionably a place of 
much consequence, can now hardly be traced in the valley 
which it once adorned. Its name, which is supposed to be 
Phoenician, might, perhaps, justify the opinion of those who 
conjecture that it owed its original foundation to the brother 
of Dido, though Herodotus, as we have found, states ex- 
pressly that it was built by the brothers of Arcesilaus, king 
of Cyrene, who, alienated from his court by some domestic 
broils, sought for themselves a new residence beyond the 
limits of his dominion. It was taken and plundered by the 
Persians under Amasis, who sent many of its inhabitants as 
prisoners into the territory of his master ; but the decay into 
which it finally sunk is understood to have had its origin in 
the rise pf Ptolemeta, its seaport, now usually ranked as one 

551. Respecting the allusion to Apollo, Captain Beechey ima- 
gines " the words to have been l~i kpeog rov /j.eyiu'Jov AttoXAwvoj-, 
fmt the os is wanting after A7roXAwv. and the # in neyiarov ; in 
which latter word also the £ and y look more like an a and r. 
The rest of the inscription is clear ; and were we only to give it 
as a fragment, em upeog rov . . . kttqv A-noXXwv . . there would 
probably be no doubt raised with respect to the manner of read- 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 141 



of the Five Cities. Strabo, Pliny, and some of the older 
geographers, assert that the town just named was erected 
upon the very spot where Barca had stood ; but Ptolemy 
with greater accuracy fixes the site of the one on the shore, 
and of the other at some distance in the interior. Scylax, 
in his Periplus, places the latter about 100 stadia or eight 
miles from its port — a circumstance which, in the estimation 
of Delia Cella, tends to conciliate the discordant narratives 
of the ancient writers, and authorizes him to say, that he 
discovered the ruins of Barca at a situation in the plain of 
Merge, about two hours' walk from Ptolemeta, along a very 
steep path towards the southeast. These ruins consist of 
tombs, walls fallen down and scattered over a level space, 
and wells of very great depth, some of which still afford most 
excellent water.* 

The author of the " Expedition to explore the Northern 
Coast of Africa" remarks, that near the centre of Merge is a 
ruin now called Marabut Sidi, and also, that a few miles to 
the southeast of it are the remains of an inconsiderable 
town, which is said to have been built by a celebrated she- 
reef, but of which, it is added, so little is now standing, that 
the plan of the buildings could not be satisfactorily ascer- 
tained. It is not improbable that this is the same place of 
which the Italian speaks with so much confidence, as the 
supposed site of Barca — an inference which derives no 
small plausibility from an examination of the physical proper- 
ties of the soil and the features of the surrounding landscape, 
all agreeing, in most respects, with those ascribed to the 
position of the ancient capitals of this interesting territory.! 

The plain of Merge loses none of its beauties on the west- 
ern side, where it borders on Ptolemeta, the Ptolemais of the 
Greek authors and Dolmeita of the modem Arabs. The 
vicinity of this town is wild and romantic in the extreme ; 
and on approaching it through a deep glen, one might 
imagine himself transported to the charming secluded val- 
leys of Switzerland cr Savoy. It is true, that in the Cyre- 
naica, nature is on a less-extended scale, but it appears in a 
form not less captivating on that account ; and were a person 

* Travels in Barbary, p. 217. Strabo, lib. xvii. Plin. Hist, 
Natur., lib. v., c. 5. 
f Beechey, p. 395. 



142 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



dropped into the eastern vale of Ptolemeta, he would never 
for a moment conjecture that he was in Africa — that parched 
and desert region, so repulsive to the fancy of a European. 
This enchanting retreat rises gradually from the sea, winding 
through forests of pines and flowering shrubs, which thicken 
as the sides of the mountains become higher and more 
abrupt, till it loses itself in the precipitous part of the range 
that bounds it to the southward, and presents a dark barrier 
of wood shooting up into the clear blue sky. On reaching 
the opposite end of this verdant amphitheatre a new scene 
appears. Among the trees which clothe the declivities of 
the hills are many handsome sarcophagi of Greek and Ro- 
man workmanship, all executed in stone, together with seats 
of the same material for the convenience of those who might 
choose to repair thither either to indulge their grief or to 
gratify their taste. 

The position of the town, it is observed, has been remark- 
ably well chosen. In its front was the sea, and on either 
side a ravine, where are still observed traces of fortifications 
which must have secured its flanks against any sudden at- 
tack ; while the only passes by which it could be approached 
from the high ridge on the south, were defended by strong 
barriers drawn completely across them. Two bridges appear 
to have been thrown over each of these hollows, one of 
which is still somewhat entire. The streets sloping down 
gradually from the ground which forms the foot of the moun- 
tains, were thereby sheltered from the winds heated by the 
sand of the Desert. Captain Beechey is of opinion, that 
there is no place on the coast of Northern Africa, between 
Tripoli and Ptolemeta, which can be compared with the latter 
for beauty, convenience, and security of situation — Lebida 
alone excepted. He observes, however, that when he arrived 
there, the greater part of the town was thickly overgrown 
with wild marigolds and chamomile, to the height of four or 
five feet ; and patches of corn were here and there growing 
even within the city walls. The solitude of the ruins was 
not broken by animals of any description, except a small 
number of jackals and hvenas, which strayed down after sun- 
set in search of water, and a few owls and bats, which started 
gut from their retreats when they heard the unwonted sound 
of the human voice. * 

* Beechey, p. 36Q, 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 143 



It is reckoned that the walls of Ptolemeta, when entirej 
must have enclosed a quadrangle of 18,000 English feet in 
circuit ; and the portion which may still be traced from the 
existing remains, surrounds a space of at least 13,000. A 
line drawn through the centre of the city from north to south, 
would be about 4,800 feet in length, and that across it from 
east to west, would be about 4,400. The whole circumfe- 
rence of the town, accordingly, must have been somewhat 
less than three English miles and a half, its length rather 
short of a mile, and its breadth a little more than three 
quarters. 

Approaching from the west, there is seen an insulated 
gateway like a triumphal arch, overlooking the desolate ruins. 
An amphitheatre and two theatres are still visible ; the latter 
are close to the relics of a palace, of which only three col- 
umns are standing ; and the former is constructed in a large 
quarry, in which the seats have been partly excavated, those 
portions only being built which could not be formed in the 
rock itself. The interior court of the palace is still covered 
with tesselated pavement, and beneath it are very spacious 
cisterns, regularly arched, communicating with each other^ 
and receiving air and light from the yard above. Bruce, 
who, though he confounded Ptolemeta with Teuchira, was 
certainly here, imagined that the pillars belonging to this 
building were the remains of an Ionic temple, and even de- 
scribes them as being executed in the best style of that order. 
Later travellers have questioned the accuracy of his conclu- 
sion, and deny that the appearance of the columns gives any 
countenance to the opinion he entertained. But were the 
resemblance to the early Ionic much greater than it really is, 
the existence of a Greek inscription, which is built into the 
basement of the columns, bearing the names of Cleopatra and 
Ptolemy Philometer, together with another turned upside 
down, mentioning that of Arsinoe conjointly with Ptolemy 
and Berenice, would prevent the attributing to them an ear- 
lier date than the times of the sovereigns whose reigns are 
commemorated. * 

At the northeastern part of the town there is a structure 
of very large dimensions, the outer walls of which are still 
standing to a considerable height ; but it is acknowledged 



* Beechey, p. 358, 



144 THE CYHENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



that the plan of its interior is not sufficiently apparent to au- 
thorize any conjecture as to the purpose which it was meant 
to serve. On its northern face are three large quadrangular 
tablets of stone inserted into the wall, each five feet in length 
by four in breadth, on which are cut Greek inscriptions ; and 
to the westward and southwestward of this building are 
many interesting remains of private dwelling-houses, palaces, 
and baths. 

Signor Delia Cella, from the inspection of the style of 
architecture which prevails here, was induced to hold the 
belief that Ptolemeta must have had an Egyptian origin, or, 
at least, that many of its public edifices were erected during 
the period when Cyrenaica was subject to the rulers of the 
Nile. But it is maintained, on the contrary, by English trav- 
ellers, that this city presents in its ruins nothing which is not 
either Greek or Roman ; and that the profusion of unneces- 
sary ornament, which generally distinguished the later pro- 
ductions of both these nations, is very different from the 
manner of decoration observable in such remains as are truly 
Egyptian. It is not asserted, that there are no examples of 
good taste at this ancient city ; but it appears, that by far 
the greater part of the buildings now remaining have been 
constructed since it became a Roman colony, and that there 
are none to which a higher antiquity can be assigned than 
the period at which the country was occupied by the Ptole- 
mies. 

At the western extremity of the town, the attention is 
arrested by a large and very lofty dormitory, constructed on 
a basis of solid rock, which has been purposely insulated from 
the quarry in which it stands. It assumes the appearance 
of a stately tower, and forms a striking feature in the sce- 
nery about Ptolemeta, being seen from a considerable dis- 
tance. It is, indeed, says Delia Cella, a magnificent monu- 
ment, supported by a vast square base cut in the side of the 
hill. The entrance is of a triangular shape ; and within are 
several rows of cells for the reception of the dead. Suppo- 
sing that Ptolemy Physcon, the first Egyptian sovereign of 
the Cyrenaica, laid the foundations of this town, the doctor 
concludes that the mausoleum must have been raised by the 
same hands ; since it was useless for the kings who preceded 
him to have tombs here, when their usual residence was in 
Egypt ; nor is it likely to have been erected after his time. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 145 



because it cannot be supposed that, with the feelings of his 
nation in respect to burial-places, he would submit to have a 
sepulchre undistinguished from those of his subjects.* 

Leaving these wrecks of former magnificence, the traveller 
still enjoys the delight of most beautiful scenery, as he makes 
his way to Teuchira, another member of the Cyrenaic Pen- 
tapolis. The name of this town was changed, when under 
the dominion of Egypt, to Arsinoe first, and afterward to 
Cleopatra ; but its original appellation has so far survived the 
others as to appear in Tauchira or Tocra, the term applied 
to it by the modern Arabs. Its history, indeed, occupies no 
conspicuous place, either in the annals of the Greeks or in 
those of the Moslem. The fortifications, which were repaired 
by the Emperor Justinian, remain in a good state of preser- 
vation ; being built of massy blocks of stone, many of which* 
from the inscriptions they bear, must evidently have formed 
a part of more ancient structures. 

Though situated near the shore, Teuchira could never 
have been a seaport, being much exposed to northern gales, 
and altogether incapable of receiving any protection from the 
resources of art. Little now remains within the walls to 
engage the attention of the architect or antiquary ; for, so 
complete has been the destruction of the houses, public and 
private, that the eye perceives nothing besides a mass of 
rubbish, and a few fragments of sculpture lying scattered 
around. The streets appear to have been buiit in squares, 
and to have crossed each other at right angles. One of these 
must have extended from the eastern to the western gate ; 
and towards the centre of it there were found some columns 
and the remains of an arch. In various other parts, to the 
northeast and southwest in particular, there are imposing 
relics of fallen pillars and entablatures, which have doubtless 
belonged to sumptuous buildings, There are also some 
interesting fragments at the northeastern angle of the city, 
where part of a quarry has been enclosed within the walls for 
the better defence of the place a fortress has likewise been 
erected at the same point, in an elevated position, which 
appears to have been the stronghold of the garrison. It is 
supposed, that in former times there must have been numer- 
ous statues in Teuchira ; but few or none have escaped the 

* Proceedings, &c, p. 384. Travels in-Barbary, p, 215, 
N 



146 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAP0LI5. 

barbarism of the Vandals, and the ignorant fanaticism of 
those by whom they were succeeded as masters of the prov- 
ince.* 

The ruins of two Christian churches are still distinctly per- 
ceptible, in both of which the part devoted to the altar was 
on the eastern side. .The excavated tombs which, after the 
manner of oriental cities, abound in the neighbourhood, con- 
tain a variety of Greek inscriptions ; though it must be ad- 
mitted, that as they are chiefly confined to names and dates, 
their interest is not very great. It is not unworthy of re- 
mark, however, that in one of them was discovered an un- 
questionable proof of Egyptian ascendency ; the titles of the 
months being expressed in the Coptic language — the vernacu- 
lar dialect of the Lower Nile. Many of these caverns, we are 
told, and probably the most ancient, are now buried under a 
mass of drifted sand ; and among them it is not unlikely that 
some notices might be detected both entertaining and in- 
structive ; though such as were examined did not present 
any thing of sufficient importance to remunerate the toil and 
expense necessary to open a passage into their interior. They 
appear, indeed, extremely rude compared with those of Cy- 
rene and Egypt, and the inscriptions are, for the most part, 
very imperfectly cut. In general, they have only one cham- 
ber, three sides of which are in some instances occupied by 
niches cut into the wall for the reception of bodies. In some 
of the tombs there are no places discernible for human re- 
mains — a circumstance from which an inference has been 
drawn that the corpses must have been burnt, and only the 
ashes reserved for the funereal mansion. There is no trace 
of embalming to be discovered either at Teuchira or Ptole- 
meta ; no fragment of a cinerary urn, nor of vases of any 
description. The dampness of the climate in the winter 
season would, no doubt, contribute very materially to the 
destruction of all these remains ; but the chief cause, un- 
questionably, why they have so entirely disappeared, is con- 
nected with the usages of the Arabs, who, in the rainy sea- 
son, convert these dwellings of mortality into residences for 
themselves and their cattle. t 

On the road to Bengazi, the ancient Berenice, there are 
many tokens of civilization and improvement, now long neg- 



* Beechey, p. 37L 



f Ibid., p. 373. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 147 



lected by the barbarian inhabitants. Walls, arches, door- 
ways, and pieces of broken columns, attest the industry and 
skill of former ages, in places where rank grass and neglected 
shrubs now harbour numerous serpents. At Birsis and 
Mably — under the latter of which denominations the term 
Neapolis is supposed to be concealed — there are various re- 
mains of buildings which establish the probability that flour- 
ishing towns once existed there, and enjoyed the benefits of 
an enlightened government. The country around, too, is 
described as at once fertile and lovely, consisting of a plain 
expanding between the mountains and the shore, covered 
with flowers, and presenting every symptom of an inexhaust- 
ible soil. 

As Bengazi itself stretches still further towards the north, 
the extent of the level ground between the sea and the hills 
is much increased, constituting an uncommonly fine district, 
capable of supporting a large population. But, though the 
situation be excellent, the town itself is equally destitute of 
elegance and comfort. The houses are built after the manner 
usually followed by the Arabs, with rough stones and mud ; 
and in the wet season, accordingly, nothing is more common 
than to see them melt down into a heap of moist earth. 
When a cabin falls, it is generally left in a state of ruin, and 
the family remove to some other spot, without troubling 
themselves farther about it ; the consequence is, we are told, 
that the streets are often nearly blocked up by mounds of 
this nature, which form in winter accumulations of mire, and 
in the dry weather scatter clouds of dust in the eyes of the 
passengers. There is, however, nothing peculiar to Bengazi 
in the scene now described, for every Arab town and village 
presents, more or less, a similar spectacle. 

With so many objects to attract them, it cannot be sur- 
prising that such a place should be proverbial for flies ; and, 
in fact, we find travellers asserting that among the various 
annoyances with which the place abounds, these are, perhaps, 
the most serious of any, or, at all events, those from which it 
is least possible to escape. They follow you everywhere, 
settle on any part of the arms, legs, and body, which the heat 
of the weather obliges you to leave uncovered ; creep obsti- 
nately into the corners of the eyes and up the nostrils, into 
the hollows of the ears, and often fly down the throat, nearly 
tjhoking you, should the mouth happen to be open. At 



m 

148 THE CYREN A.ICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 

meals, every part of the dishes and their contents are cov- 
ered with them as soon as they are produced ; and every 
fluid becomes a trap for as many of these creatures as can 
crowd upon its surface. In short, says Captain Beechey, 
there is literally no riding or walking, no reading or writing, 
no eating or resting one's self in any part of Bengazi in com- 
fort for them ; and if at night they take up their accustomed 
position on the ceiling, and give place to the fleas and mos- 
chetoes, the first dawn of morning finds them on the wing, 
and all alive to recommence their operations.* 

The harbour, which was at one time safe and capacious, 
cannot now admit vessels drawing more than seven or eight 
feet of water ; while the fortifications, originally constructed 
to defend it, are so miserably decayed, that when a British 
ship lately approached it, the Bey requested that the usual 
salutation might be dispensed with, lest the concussion should 
bring down the walls. Its chief protection, therefore, is 
supplied by a reef of rocks, which narrows the passage so 
much that no stranger can enter it without the aid of a pilot. 

There is not a single place of amusement or public resort 
in any part of this gloomy town ; its inhaoitants idling or 
sleeping away the greater portion of their time, without ap- 
pearing to entertain the slightest desire of improving their 
condition or of enlivening the monotony of their pursuits. As 
the religion and laziness of a Turk equally prompt him to 
depend more upon the interposition of Providence than upon 
his own exertions, he uses no means, and rarely has recourse 
to any precautions ; and hence, centuries after centuries may 
pass away without witnessing any advancement in knowl- 
edge, any redress of grievances, or any progress in the arts 
which bless and adorn human life. Bengazi is said to con- 
tain about 2,000 inhabitants, a large proportion of whom are 
Jews and negro slaves ; but the number of persons actually 
residing in the place is continually varying, owing to the cir- 
cumstance that many remove to the country whenever the 
weather permits, to establish themselves in tents made of 
palm-trees. The Hebrews are a persecuted race, but uni- 
formly steady in the pursuit of riches. As usually happens 
in Mohammedan states, they are the principal merchants and 
tradesmen ; and their unremitted industry alone enables them 



* Proceedings, &c, p. 285-287. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 149 



to meet the heavy exactions which are made upon their prop- 
erty by the adherents of the prophet. 

The site now occupied by this dirty town was, as we have 
already said, formerly covered by Berenice, and in still more 
ancient times by Hesperis ; but of these famed cities very few 
remains now appear above ground, to interest the sculptor, 
the architect, or the antiquary. This total absence of col- 
umns and statues is ascribed to a common practice of the 
Arabs, who, in building their huts, break into small pieces 
such of the stones belonging to the old edifices as are too large 
to suit their purpose. Many a noble frieze and cornice, and 
many a well-proportioned capital, has been crushed under the 
hammers of these barbarians. Extensive ruins are still 
found about Bengazi, a little under the surface of the ground ; 
and, accordingly, whenever a house is to be erected, the pro- 
prietor, in order to obtain materials, has nothing more to do 
than to send a few men to excavate in the neighbourhood, 
where they are sure to find a various and abundant quarry. 
On the beach, to the northeastward of the village, where a 
mound twenty or thirty feet in height is formed of the debris 
of the original town, coins and gems are frequently washed 
down in rainy weather ; and, after storms especially, the in- 
habitants repair to the shore, and sift the earth which falls 
from this bank, in search of a treasure on which Europeans 
have taught them to place a high, and in some instances an 
imaginary value.* 

Perhaps the most interesting objects in this romantic vi- 
cinity are the celebrated Gardens of the Hesperides, so long 
famed in song, and so often described as the only earthly 
paradise left to the possession of the human race. Along 
the shore there are some natural chasms or ravines, covered 
with beautiful shrubs and trees, and having at the bottom a 
level surface of excellent soil, several hundred feet in extent ; 
so that a person walking over the country comes suddenly 
upon a delightful orchard, blooming in secret, and in the 
greatest luxuriance. The effect of these ^secluded spots, 
protected, as it were, from the intrusion of mankind by the 
steepness and depth of the barriers which enclose them, "is 
singular and pleasing in the extreme. 

This situation corresponds perfectly with the description. 



* Beechey, p. 316. 
N 2 



150 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



of the Hesperides given by Scylax, who represents them as a 
sequestered spot of about two stadia, or the fifth part of a mile, 
across, filled with fruit-trees of various kinds, and inaccessi- 
ble on all sides. . He farther relates, that their distance from 
the port of Barca was 620 stadia, or rather more than sixty 
of our miles — a space which agrees very well with the jour- 
ney from Ptolemeta, the harbour to which he alluded? But 
all doubt as to the locality ought to be removed by the fact 
that Bengazi was once called Hesperides, or Hesperis — a 
circumstance which is attested by the high authority of Pto- 
lemy, the geographer, Pliny, and Stephanus. Not far from 
Berenice, writes the Roman naturalist, is the river Lethon, 
and the sacred grove where the Gardens of the Hesperides 
are said to be placed.* 

The first position of these happy retreats was supposed to 
be at the western extremity of Libya, being then the farthest 
boundary of human knowledge in the direction of the setting 
sun. The ideas with which they were always associated — 
a circuit of blooming verdure amid the Desert — were calcu- 
lated to make a deep impression on the lively fancy of the 
Greeks. There was suggested also the image of islands, 
which ever after adhered to these visionary creations. As 
the first spot became frequented, it was soon stripped of its 
fabled beauty-; but as so pleasing a notion was not to be 
easily relinquished, another w r as quickly found for it ; and 
every traveller, as he discovered a new portion of that fertile 
and beautiful coast, fondly imagined that he had at length 
arrived at the long-sought-for Islands of the Blest. In the 
end, when the continent had been examined in vain, they 
were transferred to the ocean which washes its western 
shores. The Canaries, accordingly, having never been passed 
nor even fully explored, continued "to be the Fortunate Islands, 
not from any peculiar felicity of soil or climate, but merely be- 
cause distance and imperfect knowledge left full scope to 
poetical fancy. We find Horace painting their delights and 
the happiness of their possessors in the most glowing lan- 
guage ; describing them as a refuge still left for mortals from 
that troubled and imperfect enjoyment which they were doom- 
ed to experience in every other quarter of this terrestrial globe, t 

* Ptol. Africa?, tab. iii. Hist. Nat., lib. v., e. 5. 
f Murray's Account of Discoveries and Travels in Africa, 
vol Lj p. a Herat., lib. L, ode 10 ; lib. iv., ode 8. Epod 17. 



THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 151 



As Captain Beechey is entitled to the honour of having 
discovered or identified the pleasant hermitage mentioned by 
ancient authors, we give the concluding part of the narrative 
in his own words : — " We have shown,"* says he, " that the~ 
nature of the ground in the neighbourhood of Berenice (or 
Bengazi) is consistent with the account of Scylax ; and that 
places like those' which he has so minutely described, are ac- 
tually to be found in the territory where he has laid down the 
gardens. This singular formation, so far as we have seen, is 
also peculiar to the country in question ; and we know of no 
other part of the coast of Northern Africa where the same 
peculiarities of soil are observable. We do not mean to 
point out any one of these subterranean gardens as that which 
is described in the passage quoted from Scylax ; for we know 
of no one which will correspond, in point of extent, to the 
garden which this writer has mentioned ; all of those which 
we saw were considerably less than a fifth of a mile in diam- 
eter ; and the places of this nature which would best agree 
with the dimensions in question, are now filled with water 
sufficiently fresh to be drinkable, and take the form of ro- 
mantic little lakes. Scarcely any two of the gardens we met 
with, however, were of the same depth and extent ; and we 
have no reason to conclude, that because we saw none that 
were large enough to be fixed upon for the Garden of the 
Hesperides, as it is described in the statement of Scylax, 
there is therefore no place of the dimensions required among 
those which escaped our notice ; particularly as the singular 
formation we allude to continues to the foot of the Cyrenaic 
range, which is fourteen miles distant in the nearest part 
from Bengazi. At any rate, under the circumstances w T hich 
are already before the reader, it will not be considered a 
visionary or a hastily-formed assumption, if we say that the 
position of these celebrated spots, long the subject of eager 
and doubtful inquiry, may be laid down with some probability 
in this neighbourhood. The remarkable peculiarities of this 
part of Northern Africa correspond (in our opinion) suffi- 
ciently well with the authorities already quoted to justify the 
conclusion we have drawn from an inspection of the ground, 
and to induce us to place the Gardens of the Hesperides in 
some one or other of the recesses described, rather than in 



* Proceedings, &c, p. 325. 



152 THE CYRENAICA AND PENTAPOLIS. 



any of the oases of the Desert, as suggested by M. Gossellin 

and others." 

The variety of position assigned by ancient writers to these 
fairy scenes, is referrible, perhaps, not to any precise geo- 
graphical data, but to the operation of certain secret propen- 
sities deeply lodged in the human breast. There arises in- 
voluntarily in the heart of man a longing after forms of being, 
happier and more beautiful than any presented by the crea- 
tion before him — bright scenes, which he seeks and never 
finds in the circuit of real existence. But imagination easily 
creates them, in that dim boundary which separates the known 
from the unknown world. In the first discoveries of any 
such region, novelty usually produces an exalted state of the 
imagination and passions,* under the influence of which every 
object is painted in brighter colours than those of nature. 
Nor does the illusion cease when a fuller examination proves 
that, in the place thus assigned, no such beings or objects 
exist. The soul, as long as it remains possible, still clings 
to its fond chimeras. It quickly transfers them to the yet 
unknown region beyond ; and, when driven from thence, dis- 
covers others still more remote in which it can take refuge. 
Thus we observe these enchanted spots successively retreat- 
ing before the progress of discovery, yet finding, in the far- 
thest advance that ancient knowledge ever made, some more 
distant position to which they could fly.* 

Having laid before our readers all the more interesting 
notices which respect this fine country, originally colonized 
byi:he Greeks, and long possessed by the subjects of Rome 
and Grand Cairo, we proceed to give a brief account of the 
provincial capital itself and its more immediate dependances. 

* Gossellin, Geographie Ancienne. Malte Brun, Histoire de 
la Geographie, quoted in Historical Account of Discoveries and 
Travels in Africa, vol. i., p. 7. 



TRIPOLI, ETC. 



153 



CHAPTER VI. 

Tripoli and its immediate Dependances. 

Ancient Limits of the Pachalic — Great Syrtis seldom visited— 
Delia Cella and the Beecheys — Ghimines — Forts and Ruins — 
Tabilba — Remains of a Castle — Curious Arch — Braiga, a 
Seaport, and strongly garrisoned — Thought to be the ancient 
Automala— Sachrin, the southern Point of the Gulf— Shape 
of the Bay — Cato, Lucan, and Sallust — Muktar — Hudia — 
Linoof — Mahiriga — Fortress — Tower of Bengerwad — Suppo- 
sed to be that of Euphrantas — Charax — Medinet Sultan — 
Shuaisha — Hamed Garoosh — Zaffran — Habits of the Natives 
— Their Dress — The Aspis of Ancient Writers — GirafT— Cape 
Triero — Mesurata — Salt-marshes — Gulf of Zuca — Lebida — 
Ruins — Narrative of Captain Smyth — Tagiura — Fertility — 
Tripoli — Appearance — Tripoli believed to be of Moorish ori- 
gin — Old Tripoli destroyed by the Saracens — Opinion of Leo 
Afric anus— Favourable Judgment formed by Mr. Blaquiere — 
Moral Character of the Tripolines — Statement by the Author 
of Tully's Letters — Description of Tripoli by Captain Bee- 
chey — Pacha's Castle — Mosques — Triumphal Arch — Inhabi- 
tants divided into Moors and Arabs — Manner in which the 
Turks spend their time — Peculiar Mode of conducting Con- 
versation — Bedouins — Their Dress and Manners — The Pia- 
nura or Fertile Plain — Visit to the Castle— Magnificence of 
the Apartments — Pacha's principal Wife — Mode of Saluta- 
tion—Refreshments — History of Tripoli — Knights of Malta — 
Rajoot Rais — Admiral Blake — Sir John Narborough — Major- 
Eaton — Revolution by Hamet the Great — The Atrocities 
which attended it — Fezzan — Siwah — Augila — Marabouts — 
Scene witnessed by Captain Lyon — Drunkenness — Langua- 
ges spoken at Tripoli. 

The proper limits of this pachalic, towards the east, might 
perhaps be fixed with perfect accuracy at the border of the 
desert which separates it from Cyrenaica and the minor de- 
pendances of Egypt. It is true that the territory of Barca, 
including all the fine lands which lie along the coast, is at 
present subjected to the ruler of Tripoli, whose authority is 
partially acknowledged to the very extremity of Marmarica. 



154 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



But it is not less manifest, at the same time, that the ancient 
boundaries of the Carthaginian State, of which the three 
cities, Orea, Leptis, and Sabrata, made a part, did not extend 
beyond the remoter verge of the Great Syrtis — the point 
marked by the romantic legend of the Philceni — where the 
provinces governed by Cyrene may be conceived to have 
begun. 

The drearv space which intervenes between the eastern 
termination of the Gulf and Cape Mesurata has been seldom 
trodden in modern times by the foot of a European. Delia 
Cella, the medical gentleman whose work has been so often 
quoted, attended the son of the pacha on an expedition to the 
Bay of Bomba ; accompanying the army during the whole 
of their march across the Desert, and sharing deeply in the 
sufferings and privations which are inseparable from such an 
undertaking. Captain Beechey, also, with his brother and 
two other officers, performed, at a somewhat later period, a 
similar journey ; having been appointed by the Admiralty to 
examine the line of coast from Tripoli to Derna, and if pos- 
sible to Alexandria. Although the travellers, in both in- 
stances, proceeded from west to east, we shall, according to 
the plan already adopted, arrange our details as if advancing 
from Bengazi towards the capital ; after which, conceiving 
that the connexion with Egypt, on which we have founded 
our scheme, shall have been sufficiently consulted, we will 
commence our description at the seat of each re-spective gov- 
ernment. 

Ghimines, then, is the first station southward of Bengazi 
which presents any thing worthy of attention. There are 
found the remains of several ancient forts, some of which 
must have been constructed on a peculiar plan. They are 
built of large stones of very unequal size, put together with- 
out any cement, and made to fit into one another in the 
manner which has been called Cyclopian. Their form is a 
square with the angles rounded off, and some of them are 
filled with earth, well beaten down, to within six or eight feet 
of the top, the upper part of the wall being left as a parapet 
to the terrace thus composed in the interior. In the centre 
of this artificial mound are sometimes observed the traces 
of buildings, the roofs of which must have been higher than 
the outer walls ; and a space seems in all cases to have been 
left between these central chambers and the parapet, in which 



IMMEDIATE DEPEND ANCES. 



155 



the garrison might place themselves when defending the fort. 
An opening like a window was noticed in one of the castles, 
which may have been used for drawing up those who entered 
it, as there was no other inlet whatever. The most of these 
structures have been surrounded with a trench, on the outer 
side of which there is generally a low wall strongly built with 
large stones. Some of them, which have been excavated in 
the solid rock, are of considerable depth and width ; and, in 
one instance, chambers were observed carefully dug in the 
sides of the trench. In this case, the ditch is about twenty- 
five feet broad and fifteen deep, the fortress itself being 125 
in length and ninety in width. The form is quadrangular ; 
and in the centre of each of its sides is a projection, sloping 
outward from the top, twenty feet in length by twelve, which 
appears to have served at once as a tower and buttress. 

No object of much consequence appears between Ghimi- 
nes and Tabilba, supposed to be the site of what Ptolemy 
calls the " Maritimae Stationes." Here are found the remains 
of a castle ; and on the hill just above it are the ruins of a 
very strong fortification connected with it by a wall five feet 
thick, carried quite round the precipice on which it is erected. 
This was defended on the side towards the land by a fosse 
thirty feet wide, dug out in the solid stone. The interior of 
the rock on which the castle stands has been excavated into 
numerous galleries and chambers, which seem to have an- 
swered the purpose of barracks. In one of these are several 
Greek inscriptions, written with ink on the walls, in what 
may be called the running-hand of the Lower Empire. In 
other parts were tombs likewise fabricated in the solid mass, 
some of which were entered by a quadrangular well, after the 
manner of those common in Egypt. In the wall fronting the 
south was observed, among the rubbish which encumbered 
it, part of an arch, constructed without a keystone, of square 
blocks arranged so as to touch each other at the bottom, and 
having the interstices above filled with a very durable cement. 
Examples of similar arches were found in various parts of the 
Syrtis, as well as of the Cyrenaica, denoting the great an- 
tiquity of the buildings to which they are attached. 

Proceeding along the coast, amid various ruins and salt- 
water lakes, the traveller reaches Braiga, a seaport town. 
Judging from the remains of several spacious fortresses, we 
flaay conclude that this at one time must have been a strong- 



156 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



ly-garrisoned place. In a subterranean chamber were seen 
the representation of a ship and of a palm-tree, sketched on 
the surface of the cement, which is still as smooth and per- 
fect as the day it was first wrought. The ground about this 
excavation, and indeed the whole neighbourhood, was strewed 
with fragments of pottery and glass ; among which was picked 
up a brass coin of Augustus Caesar in very good condition. 
On the contiguous hills, too, are the vestiges of sundry forts 
of the usual quadrangular form, and constructed of large 
stones very regularly shaped — all proving that Braiga must 
have been a military station of considerable importance. Cap- 
tain Beechey is disposed to identify it with the Automata of 
Strabo, although he admits that its position does not pre- 
cisely coincide with the description given by the great geog- 
rapher, who places it at the most southern point of the gulf, 
from which it is now distant a few miles. But, except this 
town, as he justly remarks, there are no ruins on that part 
of the coast which can be supposed to represent the ancient 
Automala, the remains of which could not, in any circum- 
stances, have entirely disappeared. 

Sachrin is, properly speaking, the bottom of the gulf ; and 
few parts of the world, we are told, could present so truly 
desolate and wretched an appearance as its shores in this 
neighbourhood are found to exhibit. Marsh, sand, and barren 
rocks alone meet the eye, and not a single human being, or 
a trace of vegetation, is to be seen in any direction. The 
stillness of the night was not broken even by the howlings 
of the jackal or hyena ; " and it seemed," says Captain 
Beechey, " as if all the animated portion of creation had 
agreed in the utter hopelessness of inhabiting it to any advan- 
tage." 

The form assumed by the southern point of the gulf, or 
Greater Syrtis, is very different from that commonly repre- 
sented in maps. Instead of the narrow inlet in which it is 
usually made to terminate, there was seen a wide extent of 
coast, sweeping due east and west, with as little variation as 
possible. The chart ascribed to Ptolemy is the only one 
extant which approaches to any thing like the actual line of 
the shore ; and every step which modern geographers have 
receded from this authority, has been a step farther from the 
truth. It is deserving of remark, however, that though the 
shape of the bay at its southern extremity has been very 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 



157 



incorrectly laid down by recent cosmographers, the latitude 
assigned to it is perfectly exact. Very erroneous notions, 
too, have been inherited from the ancients in regard to the 
nature of the soil adjoining the Syrtis. Cato is described as 
leading his army through deep and burning sands ; and Lucan 
has given so exaggerated an account of the same march, as 
to make his description almost wholly imaginary. Sallust 
also, in his story of the Philseni, speaks of the level and sandy 
plain in which their monuments were erected, without either 
river or mountain by which the boundaries of the two coun- 
tries might be marked. But we are assured, thaj there is 
not now any plain of this description at the bottom of the 
gulf; and, on the other hand, that though there is no river, 
there is a range of hills not less than six hundred feet in 
height. These discrepances, however, must not be held 
sufficient to invalidate the testimony of respectable authors. 
On a low coast, composed of loose materials, and often beaten 
by a high sea and violent gales, there will necessarily occur 
many changes of outline ; the shallows are filled up, and new 
inroads are made upon the land ; and hence the narrow 
wedge-formed inlet, mentioned by Strabo as characterizing 
the bottom of the gulf, niay have long since disappeared, 
either owing to the Mediterranean having advanced upon its 
southern shore, as is found elsewhere to be the case, or by 
the action of the desert-winds loaded with clouds of sand. 

Muktar, the next place in succession, is esteemed the 
boundary of the districts of Sert and Barca, the line being 
marked, though rather indistinctly, by small piles of loose 
stones. It seems still to enjoy a trade in sulphur, which is 
brought to the coast from mines situated in the Desert, and 
finally conveyed to Braiga, where it is exported. The route 
of the traveller in this desolate land presents very little va- 
riety, being confined to a range of sand-hills and salt-lakes, 
which invite no inhabitants, rational or irrational, to disturb 
the solitude. Passing Hudia and Linoof, the weary pilgrim 
arrives at Mahiriga, where are again discovered the vestiges 
of civilization. A quadrangular building, similar to those al- 
ready described, occupies the summit of an eminence near 
the sea. No traces remain of its external roof, but part of 
an arched one is still visible on the ground-floor within, 
which, from its inferior workmanship, may be attributed to a 
later age. Marks of walls are also seen in the inside of the 



158 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



building, which have formerly divided it into chambers ; 
though in this case, too, the execution is extremely rude, and 
denotes a very low condition of the arts. This fortress is 
surrounded by a wall about a yard in thickness, enclosing a 
considerable area; but there is nothing resembling a trench. 
Neither is there any appearance of an entrance in the whole 
exterior of the structure, the height of which, even to the top 
of the turrets, is now not more than fifteen or twenty feet. 

At the Cape of Bengerwad is a tower, which Captain 
Beechey imagines must be that of Euphrantas, mentioned by 
Strabo ; and at no great distance are certain ruins, which he 
is inclined to identify with the town of Charax, commemora- 
ted by the same geographer. Owing to the cliff on which it 
stood having given way, the greater part of the building has 
fallen down upon the beach ; but though, in consequence of 
this accident, little of the plan can be satisfactorily made out, 
it is clear that it must have been a stronghold of no small 
importance. On both sides it would command an extensive 
view of the sea, and it still overlooks many remains of edifices 
scattered over the plain in its rear. This situation, indeed, 
appears so well calculated, both by nature and art, for the 
establishment of a boundary-line, that the fort is regarded as 
having been the main defence on the common limits of Car- 
thage and Cyrene in the time of the Ptolemies. In fact, 
the tower of Euphrantas is so described by Strabo ; and of 
all the ruined fortresses on this portion of the Greater Syrtis, 
no one accords so aptly with the delineation of that learned 
author, as the lofty structure at Bengerwad. Still, so little 
is said by the Greek writers respecting the buildings along 
the margin of the gulf, that it must be always extremely dif- 
ficult to assign any other name to the relics of forts and 
towns, than those by which the Arabs of the country are 
now pleased to distinguish them. Charax is pointed out by 
the great geographer as occurring, after the tower just de- 
scribed, to a person travelling from west to east ; but, before 
the position of this town can be ascertained, it will be neces- 
sary to decide upon that of Euphrantas, which, in a district 
presenting a continued chain of forts from one end to the 
other, cannot be easily accomplished. 

Medinet Sultan has also been an important military station, 
as may be inferred from the extensive fortifications, of which 
it still presents the outlines. Though the plan of the build- 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 159 



ings be in a great measure perfect, that of the walls could 
not be satisfactorily made dut. Within a quadrangu- 
lar enclosure is a subterranean storehouse or reservoir, 
which appears to have been first excavated in the soil, then 
formed with rough stones, and lastly, coated with an excel- 
lent cement, yet remaining almost wholly entire. There are 
several chambers, in some of which it was hoped inscriptions 
might be obtained, indicating the date and purpose of the 
work ; but in this respect curiosity was altogether disap- 
pointed, no writing being discovered except a few scrawls in 
the Arabic character. In the neighbourhood are the remains 
of the town itself, which continues to retain the proud title of 
Medina, or The City, where, however, its greatness has no 
other memorial besides some good wells and tanks — a valu- 
able distinction, no doubt, in all parts of Northern Africa. 

Having passed Shuaisha and Hamed Garoosh, the country 
assumes a more pleasant aspect. The hills are higher, and 
the valleys better cultivated. Flocks of sheep and goats 
also begin to appear ; and the sportsman finds hares, plovers, 
quails, curlews, and wild ducks. But the traveller, amid 
the melancholy waste, perceives nothing to awaken his recol- 
lection or amuse his fancy until he reach Zaffran, one of the 
most agreeable stages on the long journey from Bengazi to 
Tripoli. Delia Cella describes it as adorned with meadows, 
full of an elegant species of ranunculus, with very large and 
white flowers, and abundantly supplied with good water. 
Fragments of hewn stone, also, occasionally observed among 
the sand, gave proof that this part of the coast must at one 
time have been inhabited ; and, indeed, Strabo mentions 
several ports near the bottom of the gulf, the site of which 
corresponds not inaptly with that of the ruins, which may 
still be detected by a careful eye. But the labour of identi- 
fying ancient towns, in a country so little known to the 
Greeks and Romans, has not hitherto been attended with 
any degree of success. Even in modem times, this portion 
of Africa is usually avoided by travellers, who, unless es- 
corted by a strong military force, and armed with despotic 
power over the persons and property of the natives, would 
find it impossible to traverse their wild domains. 

The Arabs who occupy the pasture-lands on the eastern 
limits of the Barcean Desert are still in a very low degree of 
civilization. The men pass their lives in the most complete 



160 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



idleness, stretched out in their tents, or seated with their 
heads between their knees, incessantly chewing tobacco and 
small bits of natron, which they procure from the interior, 
and is supposed to be that singular species of laminated car- 
bonate of soda, which is found two days' journey from Fez- 
zan, and annually brought in large quantities to Tripoli. It 
is somewhat remarkable that the same mineral is gathered 
near the lake of Salaguarilla, in the province of Venezuela, 
in South America, and is used by the inhabitants of the coun- 
try in the mastication of tobacco, in a manner very similar to 
that followed on the northern shores of Africa. Spinning 
and weaving camlets are the ordinary occupations of the wo- 
men, who are said to be very awkward at their work. The 
art is so little improved, that their instruments are exactly 
the same as they were in the age when they were first in- 
vented. The piece of stuff which is woven Upon them looks 
more like matting than woollen cioth ; but owing to the ex- 
cellent quality of the materials, it is extremely soft, and feels 
like plush. They are equally ignorant in the art of spinning, 
and of preparing the wool. Seated upon the ground, they 
put a heap of it under their feet, and, seizing a tuft of it, pass 
it between their toes, pulling and tearing it upward till they 
fasten it to a sort of spindle, round which they wind the 
coarse thick yarn which they thus produce.* 

The inhabitants of Zaffran are Bedouins, as are those of 
all the parts of the Syrtis — there not being a single inhabited 
town or village between Mesurata and Bengazi. We found 
them, says Captain Beechey, hospitable and obliging, and 
never entered one of their tents without receiving a cordial 
reception ; their simple fare of milk and dates was always 
freely offered, and our horses were regaled with a feed of 
corn, which they usually found very acceptable. Fresh milk 
was not always to be had ; but they were never without a 
good supply of leban (sour milk, or, more properly, butter- 
milk) ; and we were seldom unwilling to alight from our 
saddles to take a draught of this patriarchal beverage, which a 
long day's hard riding, through a country without roads, and 
under the influence of an African sun. made infinitely more 
palatable than will easily be imagined by those who can spare 
it for their pigs.t 



* Travels, &c, p. 109. f Proceedings, &c, p. 165. 



IMMEDIATE DEPEND ANCES. 161 



The men are said to be healthy and active, and the fe- 
males pretty and well behaved. The dress of the former 
consists merely of a coarse baracan, with a red cap, and san- 
dals of camel's hide. The women wear a loose cotton shirt 
under the baracan, and, instead of the sandals, are furnished 
with laced boots. They have, as usual, a profusion of rude 
ornaments, and charms to avert the evil eye, and are not a 
little anxious to keep their faces veiled, or to avoid the socie- 
ty of strangers. 

The seabeach in this neighbourhood presents a very singu- 
lar and even formidable appearance, occasioned by large 
blocks of stone thrown ashore and piled up by the force of 
the waves. The apparent regularity in which these masses 
are heaped upon one another, suggests, at first view, the idea 
that they were intentionally placed there for the purpose of a 
breakwater ; but the long extent of the ranges soon exposes 
the improbability of this supposition, and leaves no doubt as 
to the real cause by which the phenomenon has been pro- 
duced. The roar and confusion which a moderate gale of 
wind produces here, are such as in other places will be seldom 
found to accompany the most violent weather. 

Zaffran is considered as the Aspis of ancient writers, and 
Merza Zaffran as the port of that city. From certain facts 
and measurements mentioned by Edrisi, Leo Africanus, and 
others, it is supposed that Sert, a celebrated town, must have 
stood at no great distance. But the argument on which 
these conclusions are founded is much too minute to be in- 
troduced here, and is besides of very little interest to the 
general reader. Nor do the difficulties which beset the an- 
tiquary in this instance receive any aid from the chronologer ; 
for an equal darkness hangs over the names and dates of 
most of the places which arrest the attention of a European 
between Mesurata and Pentapolis. It is conjectured, indeed, 
with some show of reason, that the majority of them were 
erected by the Romans during the imperial government, as 
they possessed at various times the whole of the northern 
coast of Africa, and maintained an extensive communication 
along the shores of the Mediterranean, and even wkh the 
lands beyond the Desert. 

At Giraff a salt marsh or lake commences, which continues 
nearly to the termination of the Greater Syrtis. The scenery 
is extremely wild and desolate, exhibiting little besides 
O 2 



162 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



mounds of sand, and ruins of which the very names have 
perished. At Arar were found some wells excavated in a 
bed of sandstone, containing the exuviae of marine animals 
united by a calcareous cement. This stratum cannot be 
very thick, for the water issues from the sides of the cavity, 
at the depth of five or six feet, and soon clarifies itself when 
allowed to stand. Pliny was of opinion that the facility of 
obtaining this indispensable liquid is occasioned by a process 
of filtration, whereby the rains which fall on the mountains of 
Mauritania are conveyed under the surface to a great dis- 
tance on either side. Nor, according to the judgment of the 
author of the Travels in Barbary, was the Roman naturalist 
wrong in ascribing the origin of these wells to the floods in 
the hilly district, which, not finding a channel to convey 
them to the sea, stagnate under the immense heaps of sand 
with which this coast abounds. The water does, no doubt, 
taste brackish to lips accustomed to the limpid streams of 
Europe ; but, as the proportion of salt is really inconsiderable, 
it is presumed that the supply of moisture is not derived im- 
mediately from the ocean. In fact, the elevation at which 
such wells are dug must preclude the supposition that they 
could ever be filled by a natural oozing from the basin of the 
neighbouring deep ; and hence the water obtained from them 
must have some connexion with the peculiarity of the soil, 
which, however parched on the top, is abundantly moist at a 
little depth.* 

After a march of two hours, the promontory which begins 
at Mesurata sinks into the Mediterranean at the place called 
by Ptolemy Cape Triero. From this point the eye com- 
mands nearly the whole of the vast gulf known as the Greater 
Syrtis, as well as of the desert regions by which it is bor- 
dered ; and we can well believe that the heart of the traveller 
shrinks at the sight of such melancholy solitudes, where the 
earth is destitute of its usual covering, and the surface so 
flat that not a single hillock can be descried. The shores of 
this dangerous recess were lately occupied by the tribe of the 
Welled Ali, who, rebelling against the Pacha of Tripoli, 
were utterly exterminated by the bey, his eldest son. Se- 

* " Puteos tamen haud difficilis binum ferme cubitorum inve- 
niunt altitudine, ibi restagnantibus Mauritania? aquis." — Plin. 
Hist. Natur., lib. v. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 163 



cure in the strength of their wilderness, they assassinated 
with impunity every one who attempted to pass through it ; 
and the mariner, dreading these miscreants still more than 
tempests and quicksands, carefully avoided their inhospitable 
coast. The head of the barbarian who commanded this sav- 
age horde was fixed upon a pole at the extremity of the gulf, 
in the year 1817, when Delia Cella performed his journey to 
the Cyrenaica. 

At Mesurata there is a town of the same name, about a 
mile from the sea, the houses of which are said to be wretch- 
edly constructed, and for the most part separated from each 
other by gardens or vacant ground. They are not more 
than ten feet in height, built of pebbles cemented with mud ; 
the roof being nothing more than palm-leaves and straw in- 
terwoven, laid upon rafters, and daubed over with a mixture 
of sand and slime. The inhabitants derive their chief sub- 
sistence from the produce of the soil ; but there are also 
some manufactories of carpets and other goods, the principal 
beauty of which arises from the fine quality of the native 
wool employed in their fabric. Caravans go from hence to 
Fezzan and Wady Ghraat, with cotton cloth, camlets, and 
coloured beads, the most envied ornament of the sable maidens 
on the banks of the Joliba ; for at the latter of these stations 
they meet the negro merchants from the regions beyond the 
sands, who carry those articles to Timbuctoo, in exchange 
for gold-dust, ivory, and slaves. 

It has been already mentioned, that salt-marshes prevail 
along the greater part of the coast, interspersed with pools 
of open water ; around which, in the sand, are numerous in- 
crustations of marine salt, in such abundance, too, that it is 
heard crackling under the feet of the horses and camels as 
they pass over it. This phenomenon is mentioned by Herod- 
otus as existing upon the border of that vast desert, which 
he describes as extending from Egyptian Thebes, across the 
country of the Ammonians, as far as the Pillars of Hercules ; 
in other words, on the edge of the Sahara, where the surface 
of the sandy waste is still found mixed with the muriate of 
soda. But the Italian physician maintains that these marshes 
have no communication with the ocean ; observing that all 
the wilderness is sprinkled over with small crusts, and that 
the hills which run towards the swamps are composed of the 
same materials, with this difference only, that the sand of 



164 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



the high ground is aggregate and compact, while that of the 
plain is loose and light. Notwithstanding, it is acknowledged 
that in some parts the pools of salt water, the incrustations, 
and more especially the masses of marine salt, leave no 
doubt that the Mediterranean must have passed over the 
lower part of the coast at a comparatively recent period.* 

In truth, the occasional spreading of the sea over those 
desolate shores has given rise to the notion of a bay or inlet, 
which is supposed to extend about fifty miles into the in- 
terior. By D'Anville this indentation is called the Gulf of 
Zuca ; while it is laid down in the same dimensions by Ar- 
rowsrnith, who does not, however, venture to give it a name. 
To account for this mistake, Delia Cella reminds his readers 
that the country contiguous to this part of the Great Syrtis 
is flat, and very little raised above the ordinary level of the 
sea ; that though the shores are lined with sand-hills, they 
are frequently dispersed by hurricanes, and even shift their 
position from other causes ; that in winter the waves are 
forcibly driven upon the coast ; and that the currents, run- 
ning from north to south, greatly increase the body of water 
on the African side during the same season of the year. 
Hence, he is disposed to conclude, that under these circum- 
stances, the sea, breaking down the sandy ramparts on the 
beach, spreads itself over the adjacent plains and inundates 
a considerable tract of country. It accordingly happens, that 
the vast pools of salt water, which commence between Arar 
and Segamengiura, although often disunited, form in winter 
one very spacious lake communicating with the sea, and con- 
tinuing as long as the causes just specified keep up its level 
to a certain height. When those causes cease to operate, 
the communication is interrupted ; the return of heat pro- 
motes evaporation ; the lake dwindles into a variety of small 
pools ; the spots from which the water has retired remain 
marshy ; and their edges, as soon as they have dried, present 
abundant deposites of marine salt. The stratum of sand 
which covers these deposites is no obstacle to the process 
of evaporation ; for, as the whole soil is light and hot, the 
escape of the aqueous particles is thereby rather facilitated 
than checked.! 

* Travels in Barbary, p. 62. 

f Narrative of an Expedition^ p. 65. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 165 



Leo Africanus has adverted to Mesurata as a province on 
the coast of the Mediterranean, distant about a hundred miles 
from Tripoli. He states, that it contains many castles and 
villages ; some on heights, and others on the plain ; adding, 
that the inhabitants were excessively rich, owing to their 
attention to commerce and exemption from tribute. In his 
days, they were in the habit of receiving foreign wares, 
brought to them by the Venetians, and of carrying them into 
Numidia, where they exchanged them for slaves, civet, and 
musk, from Ethiopia, which they afterward sent to the Turkish 
market. The population of the district is supposed to amount 
to fourteen thousand, the greater part of whom are employed 
in the manufacture of carpets, straw mats, and earthen jars. 
Their gardens, which are carefully enclosed, produce abun- 
dance of dates, olives, pomegranates, pu'mpions, carrots, 
onions, turnips, radishes, tobacco, and cotton. But the 
place, it is obvious, is not now so flourishing as it was in 
the days of Leo, and its trade appears to be exceedingly 
trifling. 

After Selin, which has nothing particular to recommend it, 
succeeds Zeliten, a small town containing about five hundred 
souls. The houses, as usual, are built with mud and rough 
stones ; the roofs being formed of mats and the branches of 
trees, covered with a coating of earth. The numerous ruins 
which exist in the vicinity, and the frequent appearance of 
marble columns projecting through the mean walls of the 
cottages, seem to indicate its former magnificence as the 
" Cisternae Oppidum" of Ptolemy. The port, which still 
bears the name of Mersa Zeliten, is described as an insignifi- 
cant cove that would scarcely afford shelter to a boat. The 
district enjoys, however, the advantage of a copious supply 
of water, which might indeed be rendered much more valua- 
ble, could the Arabs be taught to exercise a little industry 
and foresight. 

.The same author writes in high terms concerning the pro- 
ductiveness of the plain which stretches from Lebida to Cape 
Mesurata. It appears, in truth, to have been the most pop- 
ulous part of Libya in the time of Herodotus, who compares 
its exuberant fertility to that of the country round Babylon, 
then esteemed the richest soil in the world. Nor is this ex- 
traordinary degree of fruitfulness owing, in any measure, to 
the skill or assiduity of the inhabitants, but proceeds solely 



166 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



from the generous nature of the land, which is spontaneously 
covered with palms and olive-trees, entire strangers to cul- 
tivation. 

In this neighbourhood is the Cinyphus, now called the 
Wady Khahan, which is said by Ptolemy to flow from certain 
eminences in the interior, styled the Hills of the Graces. 
There is a passage in Strabo which is considered as leaving 
no doubt upon the subject, for he speaks of a bridge con- 
structed by the Carthaginians across the morasses ; and the 
remains of the piles which supported the arches of such an 
edifice are still to be seen there. He likewise says, that the 
surrounding country was frequently inundated by the torrent ; 
and such is the case at present during the rainy season. The 
people of Leptis were probably supplied with water from the 
Cinyphus — the remains of an aqueduct extending from the 
ruins of the bridge to that town being still visible. 

Of Lebida itself, the Leptis Magna of former ages, nothing 
now appears, except some shapeless rains scattered about, 
and half-buried under the mounds of sand, which the wind 
and waves mutually strive to accumulate upon the seashore. 
They consist of the remains of magnificent edifices, dilapi- 
dated towers, shattered columns of red granite, broken cap- 
itals, and fragments of every species of marble ; among which 
the Parian, the Pentilic, and the oriental porphyry, are the 
most conspicuous, and particularly worthy of admiration. 
This city is understood to have been founded in remote ages 
by the Phoenicians, and long afterward to have been a Roman 
colony. In such a heap Of rubbish, it is not easy to point out 
any vestiges of the more primitive structures ; but those of 
Italian origin are sufficiently denoted by the style of archi- 
tecture, and the ornaments of the capitals. It is well known, 
so grand were some of the edifices erected by those masters 
of the ancient world, that seven granite pillars, of an im- 
mense size, were, on account of their uncommon beauty, 
transported to France, and used in ornamenting one of the 
palaces built for Louis the Fourteenth. 

The account of Lebida given by Captain Smyth, published 
in the Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the Northern 
Coast of Africa, is extremely interesting ; and as he had the 
command of a larger portion of time than usually falls to the lot 
of an ordinary traveller, the details with which he supplied his 
friend Captain Beechey merit a due share of attention. He re- 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 167 



lates that he first visited it in 1816, to ascertain whether it were 
possible to embark the numerous columns lying on its sands, 
which the Pacha of Tripoli had offered to his majesty. These 
remains had, in his eyes, a very interesting appearance, from 
the contrast of their fallen grandeur with the mud-built vil- 
lages, and the huts of the Nomadic tribes around. The city, 
with its immediate suburb, seemed to occupy a space of about 
ten thousand yards, the principal portion of which is now 
covered with a fine white sand, that, drifting along the beach, 
has been arrested- by the ruins, and proved the means of 
preserving the pillars, capitals, cornices, and sculptured frag- 
ments, which it partly covers. On his return the following 
year, he was surprised to find that most of the valuable 
columns which were standing the preceding May, had either 
been removed, or were lying broken on the spot, and that 
nearly all of those remaining had their astragal and torus 
chipped off. He discovered that a report had been circulated 
of his intention to carry them to England ; and as this scene 
had long been a quarry whence the Arabs provided them- 
selves with millstones, they had, in the meantime, been 
busily employed in breaking the finest shafts as a supply for 
their future wants in so necessary a branch of domestic 
economy. 

Notwithstanding these discouraging appearances, he en- 
gaged a hundred Arabs to assist hirn in effecting an excava- 
tion near the centre of the city, in the hope of laying bar6 
some specimens of ancient art. But he soon had the morti- 
fication of perceiving, that Leptis had been completely rav- 
aged in former times, and its public edifices demolished with 
diligent labour ; owing, perhaps, to what he calls the furious 
bigotry of the Carthaginian bishops, who zealously destroyed 
the Pagan monuments in all places under their control. From 
whatever cause it proceeded, the destruction is complete. 
Most of the statues are either broken to pieces or hammered 
into shapeless masses, the arabesque ornaments defaced, the 
acanthus-leaves and volutes knocked off the fallen capitals, 
and even part of the pavements torn up, the shafts alone re- 
maining entire. "With the view of gaining farther informa- 
tion, he opened an extensive necropolis or burial-place, but 
with little success. There were neither vases nor lachry- 
matories ; and his labour met with no reward besides a coarse 
species of amphora? and some pateras, w4th a few brass coins, 



168 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



neither rare nor handsome, and principally dated in the reigns 
of Severus, Pupienus, Alexander, Julia Mammea, Balbus, 
and Gordianus Pius. A number of intaglios, poorly executed, 
were picked up in different parts, as also some very common 
Carthaginian medals, but nothing indicating high antiquity, 
or an improved state of the arts. 

In the course of this excavation, Captain Smyth had an 
opportunity of observing proofs of the fact already stated by 
us, that the greatness of this city must have been posterior 
to the Augustan age, when taste was on the decline. The- 
colossal statues were in bad style, and most of the buildings 
had been overloaded with indifferent ornament. Without 
the gates, there are the remains of various aqueducts and 
reservoirs, some of which are in excellent preservation. In- 
deed, the whole plain, from the Margib Hills to the Cinyphus, 
exhibits unequivocal tokens of its ancient opulence and vast 
population. The gallant officer expresses his regret that no 
works of art, properly so called, were recovered from the 
wreck of this provincial metropolis. He consoles himself, 
however, with the recollection, that during the summer of 
1817 many of the architectural fragments were moved down 
to the beach, where they were put on board a storeship for 
England ; together with thirty-seven shafts, which formed 
the principal object of the expedition, and are now deposited 
in the court of the British Museum. But the vessel, un- 
fortunately, was too small to admit three fine Cepolline 
columns of great magnitude, which, from their extreme 
beauty and perfection, he was extremely desirous to have 
removed.* 

Mr. Lucas, speaking of the remains of Lebida, observes, 
that they consist of the ruins of a temple, and several tri- 
umphal arches. The fertility and beauty of the neighbour- 
ing plains discover the reasons which induced the Romans to 
erect a seaport town in a place where there is no natural 
harbour. A luxuriant vegetation, totally unaided by the Arab 
inhabitants, extends twenty-five miles to the eastward, and 
the interest of the scene is increased by the remains of a 
stupendous aqueduct, which conveyed water from a distant 
source. Mr. Blaquiere mentions, that there are gateways, 
walls, an immense number of pillars, some of which are of 



* Proceedings, &c, p. 74. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 169 



the finest granite, broken statues, and marbles, with inscrip- 
tions in Greek, Latin, and Punic characters. There are 
also a great many sculptured friezes, which appear to have 
belonged to temples ; the remains of several Roman baths 
ar« visible near the city ; * and about a mile distant is an 
oblong terrace of fine Roman pavement, apparently connect- 
ed with an ancient theatre. Cameos, coins, medals, and 
bronzes, are frequently found by the natives, who sometimes 
take them to the town for sale, but as often destroy them 
from motives of superstition. 

In approaching the capital, the attention is attracted for a 
moment by some pleasant villages, distinguished by the name 
of Tagiura, which are supposed to occupy the site of the 
ancient Abrotonum. These hamlets are surrounded by en- 
closed fields, yielding abundant crops of corn, fruit, and 
vegetables, and shaded by thickly-planted trees, among which 
are the olive and date. According to Delia Cella, the in- 
habitants of the plain between Tripoli and this station have 
made it a theatre of rural industry. It is a tract of coast 
about twelve miles in length and three in breadth, bounded 
to the south by shifting sands, which divide it from the 
mountains of Gharian. Among the plantations of palm-trees 
are many delightful gardens, fall of lemon and orange-trees, 
and protected by impenetrable fences composed of the Indian 
fig. Tagiura contains about three thousand inhabitants, 
chiefly Moors and Jews, whose houses are dispersed in 
groups over the face of the country, and who, besides their 
' labours as husbandmen, engage in the manufacture of coarse 
camlets, and mats made of leaves. At a little distance are 
a variety of Bedouin tribes, who feed their flocks on the edge 
of the Desert, as well as on an extensive plain called Turot, 
the verdant pastures of which are most grateful to the eye. 
If the industry of these people were supported by the 
government, their lands might always be kept fresh by moist- 
ure from the hills, and rendered incredibly fertile.! 

But there is nothing in the character or manners of these 
migratory herdsmen so interesting as to justify farther details. 
We therefore proceed to Tripoli itself, the history and present 
condition of which abound with incidents at once more im- 

* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 19, edition 1813, 
t Narrative of an Expedition, p. 22. 

P 



170 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



portant and intelligible to the reader, and which, though they 
are regulated by principles not a little different from those 
which influence the current of events in civilized countries, 
begin to assume a closer affinity to the politics of Europe. 

It has been already mentioned, that the State of Tripohs 
derived its ancient name from the three towns, Leptis Magna, 
Oea, and Sabrata ; the domain attached to which may be 
described as extending from the Gulf of Sidra, or the Greater 
Syrtis, to that of Cabes, or the Lesser Syrtis. The modern 
city, which bears the somewhat altered appellation of Tripoli* 
is understood to occupy the site of Oea ; being washed by 
the sea on the north and east, while on the other two sides it 
is invested by a sandy plain. It is true that Oea is nowhere 
mentioned as a port, whereas the town by which it has been 
succeeded must always have touched the shore ; but as the 
Greek geographers were not very particular in their distinc- 
tions, the objection which might be drawn from the circum- 
stance now stated is not held of much weight. 

Before the building of the present town, believed to be of 
Moorish origin, there was one denominated Tripoli Vecchia, 
elevated on the ruins of Leptis Magna, which, again, owed 
its foundation to the Phoenicians at a very remote period. 
The old Tripoli was destroyed by the Saracens, under the 
caliphate of Omar, who, after a siege of six months, de- 
molished its walls, and carried the greater part of the inhabi- 
tants prisoners into Egypt. This event is recorded by Leo 
Africanus, who remarks at the same time, that the unfortu- 
nate city had been erected by the Romans, and that the one 
which inherits the name was built by the natives of Africa. 
Leo does not assign a date for the birth of the second Tripoli, 
nor does he anywhere intimate that it was placed among the 
ruins of Oea — a town which was also indebted for its prin- 
cipal ornaments to the imperial government. A magnificent 
arch, still remaining, is sufficient to establish these facts ; 
while an inscription, not yet defaced by the hand of time, 
distinctly refers its date to the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 

The African geographer has taken pains to inform us, that 
the houses of Tripoli, when compared with those of Tunis, 
are extremely elegant. But this distinction, if it ever ex- 
isted, must have passed away ; for the rude and dilapidated 
masses of mud and stone, which now present themselves to 
the eye of the traveller under the name of dwellings, have, 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 171 



indeed, very little of architectural beauty to recommend 
them. In entering its gates, those who are not accustomed 
to Mohammedan negligence might imagine that they had 
wandered into some deserted and ruinous place, though they 
be actually traversing the most admired streets of a fashion- 
able quarter. This impression, so far as Europeans are con- 
cerned, is unavoidable; but the inhabitants themselves are 
strongly convinced of the beauty and convenience of their 
capital ; while the wandering Arab, when he approaches its 
ramparts, looks up~to the high and whitewashed walls of 
the pacha's castle, expressing vividly in his countenance the 
astonishment he feels, that human hands and ingenuity could 
have accomplished such a structure !* 

Mr. Blaquiere has a more favourable opinion of Tripoli, 
which, he says, might be taken as a model by some European 
towns in the Mediterranean ; and, though it possesses 
neither the elegance nor regularity of Valetta, you never 
hear of acts of violence being committed in the streets, and 
robberies are altogether unknown. This is the result of a 
well-regulated police, for which all the towns of Barbary are 
very remarkable ; for, independently of a night-patrol, there 
is a guard stationed in each street, who is responsible for 
whatever may occur in it of an improper nature. There is 
besides always a number of people kept for the express pur- 
pose of sweeping the town — a precaution of the greatest 
utility, to which, among others, we may attribute the health 
generally enjoyed by the inhabitants. 

But it must not be concealed, that his estimate of the 
moral character of the Tripolines themselves is by no means 
so flattering. He assures his readers, that he has been 
unable to discover any good qualities which might be put in 
contrast with their revenge, avarice, treachery, and deceit, 
conspicuous alike in the prince and the peasant. In fact, 
there is no species of artifice which a Moor will not practise 
to attain his object ; no lies nor imposture to which he has 
not recourse when dealing with foreigners. Menaces and 
threats are sometimes employed by the higher order of 
society ; while the Arabs pride themselves in the success of 
their attempts to impose quietly on your credulity. Stab- 
bing with a knife is the usual result of a serious dispute 



* Beechey, p. 6, 



172 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



between soldiers or sailors. Civilians, on the other hand, 
are said to gratify their resentment against each other by 
administering poison in a cup of coffee ; and this mode of 
removing an enemy or a rival has become so common, that 
when any person dies suddenly, people say, " He has taken 
his coffee!" The medicated beverage is sometimes given 
with the view of producing instant dissolution, and at others 
with the intention of prolonging the victim's miseries for 
several months. 

But it is admitted by all travellers, that the distant view of 
Tripoli, especially from the Mediterranean, is grand and not 
a little imposing. Previous to entering the bay, says an 
author who spent several years in Northern Africa, the 
country is rendered picturesque by various teints of beautiful 
verdure. No object whatever seems to interrupt the even- 
ness of the soil, which is almost white, and interspersed with 
long avenues of trees ; for such is the appearance of the 
numerous palms, planted in regular rows, and kept in the 
finest order. Their immense branches, coarse when near, 
are neat and distinct at a distance. The land lying low and 
very level, the naked stems of these trees are scarcely seen ; 
and the plantations of dates seem to extend many miles in 
luxuriant woods and groves. The whole town appears in a 
semicircle some time before reaching the harbour's mouth. 
The extreme whiteness of the buildings, flat, square, and 
covered with lime, encountering the sun's fiercest rays, is 
not less striking than oppressive. The baths form clusters 
of very large cupolas, crowded together in different parts of 
the town. The mosques have in general a small plantation 
of Indian figs and date-trees growing close to them, which, 
at a distance, appearing to be so many rich gardens, give to 
the whole city, in the eyes of a European, an aspect truly 
novel and pleasing. On entering the harbour, the town 
begins to show what it has suffered from the destructive 
hand of time— large hills of rubbish appearing in different 
parts of it. The castle or palace in which the pacha resides 
is at the east end, within the walls. This edifice is very 
ancient and well-enclosed. It has, however, lost all sym- 
metry on the inside, from the innumerable additions made to 
it with the view of accommodating the different branches of 
the royal family, none of whom are permitted to live else- 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 173 



where. In fact, it has gradually increased to such an extent 
as to have assumed the appearance of a fortified village.* 

This description coincides exactly with that given by 
Captain Beechey. He tells us, that the outline of Tripoli is 
extremely irregular, and that, though the walls which en- 
compass it seem to have been very strong, they are fast 
falling into ruins. The ramparts are provided, with a few 
guns, which, however, are for the most part unserviceable, 
and more likely to injure those whom they are meant to pro- 
tect than to annoy an enterprising enemy. In truth, the 
pacha does not rely upon the artificial defences of the place 
for security against the aggressions of a European fleet. 
He has much more confidence in that jealousy which has 
hitherto prevented the great Christian governments from co- 
operating together for a common object, and, more especially, 
for establishing colonies on the shores of Barbary, though 
their own reputation, and the lives and properties of their 
subjects, require that they should at all hazards attain an un- 
disputed ascendency over those piratical tribes who have so 
long infested the Mediterranean. 

The grand mosque, in which the pacha's family are buried, 
is said to have a very handsome exterior. It stands in the 
main street, near the southern gate of the city, and almost 
opposite to the palace. Before the entry there is a species 
of portico fabricated of lattice-w r ork, curiously carved, and 
two folding-doors of the same material ; while a great num- 
ber of beautifully -coloured tiles, with which the bottom of 
the lattice-work is set, give it an appearance of neatness 
very pleasing to the eye. Over the doors of all the mosques 
are long sentences from the Koran, cut in stone and painted. 
Those on this edifice are not only more richly gilt and 
coloured, but the sculpture is also much handsomer than on 
any other in the town.f 

The principal specimen of antiquity now remaining is the 
triumphal arch already mentioned, built of fine marble and 
ornamented with sculpture and inscriptions. The greatest 
part of this beautiful monument is buried in the earth, which 
reaches nearly to the middle of it ; and the upper part has 
received considerable damage from the accidents of war and 



* Tully's Letters, vol. i., p. 16. f Ibid., p. 14, 
P 3 



174 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



the ignorant curiosity of the natives. It was erected by the 
Consul Scipio CEfritus, in the days of Pius Antoninus, and 
afterward dedicated to the honour of his successors. We 
are told that it is esteemed by all good judges as more 
striking than any of the most celebrated in Italy ; as the 
temple of Janus at Rome, though constructed of marble, 
and regarded as one of the finest of these edifices, has only 
a plain roof. It does not appear so high as it really is, owing 
to the great accumulation of sand carried thither by the 
winds ; and this is the reason why there is as much of the 
structure now under the surface as can be seen above it. 
The stones of which it is composed are so extremely large, 
that it seems wonderful how they could be conveyed from 
the quarry ; and, in a country and an age so destitute of 
mechanical means, it is perhaps not less surprising how they 
were raised to such a height from the ground. No cement 
has been used to fasten them together ; yet, so solid are they, 
that, so far as the ravages of time are considered, the pile 
may be pronounced quite uninjured. The ceiling is of the 
most beautiful sculpture, a small part of which only remains 
in view, as the Moors, blind to its beauties, have for some 
time filled it up with rubbish and mortar, to form shops or 
warehouses in the interior of the arch. On the outside are 
enormous groups of whole-length figures of men and women, 
exhibiting allegorical scenes, or, it may be, representing some 
of the more important facts of history. Europeans, it is 
said, are often tempted to bring these antiquities to light, and 
they might doubtless make great and useful discoveries ; but 
the jealous Turks will not permit them to disturb a stone, or 
move a grain of sand, on such an account ; and repeated 
messages have been sent from the castle on these occasions to 
warn Christians of their danger.* 

The inhabitants may be divided into Moors and Arabs, the 
former having a fair complexion, while the latter are in gen- 
eral dark and sallow. They are all remarkable for regular 
and athletic forms, and a cripple or ' deformed person is 
rarely seen among them. There are, besides, some Turks 
and Jews, together with a certain proportion of negroes and 
European renegadoes. As the pacha affords little counte- 
nance to the Moors, who have, therefore, but a very small 



* Tully's Letters, vol. L, p. 18. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 17S 




Rich Moor and Female. 



chance of rising in the offices of government, they apply 
themselves to trade, to manufactures, and even to agricul- 
ture, whence many of them have acquired considerable 
wealth. The cut inserted above represents a couple in this 
class of society, who, by their dress and appearance, afford 
some indication of the opulence to which they have attained. 

The Turks spend much of their time at a bazar, where 
excellent coffee is prepared, and nothing else. No Moorish 
gentleman enters the house, but sends his slave to procure a 
cup of the favourite beverage, which he drinks at the door, 

1 seated on a marble couch under a green arbour. These 
benches are furnished with the richest and most beautiful 
mats and carpets. Here are found, at certain hours of the 
day, all the principal persons of that class, sitting cross- 
legged, with dishes of coffee in their hands, made as strong 

i as the essence itself. On such occasions they are always 



176 TRIPOLI AND ITS 

attended by their black servants, one of whom holds his 
master's pipe, another his cup, and a third his handkerchief, 
while he is talking. During conversation the hands must be 
free, being quite necessary for the purposes of discourse ; 
for the speaker marks with the forefinger of his right hand 
■upon the palm of his left, as accurately as we do with a pen, 
the different parts of his speech, a comma, a quotation, or a 
striking passage. This renders their dialogue very singular 
in the eye of a European, who, being unused to the manner, 
has great difficulty in following the argument or narrative to 
which his attention may be invited. 

The Arabs in the regency of Tripoli form three classes ; 
the first, those who come from Arabia ; the second, the 
Arabs of Africa ; and the third, the wandering Bedouins. 
The two former are said to be equally warlike, handsome in 
their persons, generous in their temper, honourable in their 
dealings, grand and ambitious in all their proceedings when 
in power, and abstemious in their food. They possess great 
genius, and enjoy a settled cheerfulness, not in the least 
bordering on buffoonery. Each of these tribes is governed 
by a chief, or sheik, by whose laws all those under him are 
directed, judged, and punished. Their trade is war ; and, 
as auxiliary troops, they serve with due fidelity the master 
who pays them best, so long as their contract continues. 

The Bedouins are hordes of petty merchants wandering 
over the country, and trading in what they can carry 
from place to place. In the spring of the year they advance 
to Tripoli to occupy the plain, or Pianura, as it is usually 
called. Here they sow their corn, wait till they can reap it, 
and then disappear till the following season. They pitch 
their tents under the walls of the city, but cannot enter it 
without leave ; and for any misdemeanor they may commit 
their chief is answerable to the pacha. Both the Arabs and 
Bedouins still retain many customs described in sacred and 
profane history, and are in almost every thing the same peo- 
ple that we find mentioned in the earliest records. 

In some respects, also, these migratory herdsmen bear a 
certain resemblance to the Scottish Highlanders. The men, 
for example, wear a thick dark-brown baracan of wool, five 
or six yards long and about two wide, which serves them as 
their whole dress by day and their bed by night. They put 
it on by joining the two upper corners with a wooden or iron 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 177 



Dodkin, and these being first placed over the left shoulder, 
they afterward fold the rest round their bodies, in a manner 
somewhat graceful. To those unaccustomed to wear it, the 
adjustment of its folds is no simple matter ; and a stranger is 
easily discovered by the style of his robe, so different from 
that recommended by the national usage. In this particular, 
the women, as might be expected, are found to excel. Their 
skin is said to be very dark, almost sable ; they have black 
eyes, amazingly white teeth, and in general regular features. 
They practise, however, the barbarous custom of scarifying 
their faces, particularly their chins, rubbing the wound im- 
mediately with gunpowder, which leaves ever after a distinct 
mark in the shape they have previously cut. Many of them 
prick deeply with a needle the figure they wish to print in 
the flesh — a much longer, and of course more painful opera* 
tion ; but the beauty of the ornament they consider a suffi- 
cient recompense for the dreadful torment they endure in 
producing it. They are for the most part tall, thin, and well 
made ; nor do they seem to be of the same opinion as some 
ladies in Tripoli, who think, that if they are not too fat to 
move without help, they cannot be strictly handsome ; and 
who, to arrive to this, actually force themselves, after a plen- 
tiful meal, to eat a small wheaten loaf soaked in water.* 

In the mountains which bound the plain to the southward 
is a very curious village of Arabs. The habitations are at 
the very summit of the ridge, not to be easily distinguished 
but by those who inhabit them, as they are all fabricated 
under ground. A small entry, very narrow and long, is dug 
slopingly, which leads under the earth to the house, down 
which the cattle are driven, followed by the family. These 
people are chiefly banditti ; and they are never disturbed or 
attacked, as the narrow subterraneous passages to their 
dwellings, where one man may keep a great number at bay, 
form a sufficient protection to them against the Moors. The 
length of the entry to these caverns has given rise to a pro- 
verbial simile ; every story or tale that is long and tiresome, 
is said to be like the skiffer at Ghariana, which has no 
ending.! 

The Pianura or plain, visited periodically by the Be- 
douins, presents in the proper season, which coincides with 



* Tully's Letters, vol. i., p. 43. f Ibid., p. 49. 



178 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



our autumn, an aspect peculiarly pleasant and rich. It is, 
in short, a little country of corn — every part of it being sown 
with Indian corn and barley. But during the greatest part 
of the year it is a sea of sand, shifting from place to place, 
with occasionally a slight stratum of mud on it ; and the 
parts which have been cropped look as if they were burnt 
with fire, owing to the extreme power of the solar rays, 
which renders the stubble perfectly black. 

We are told, on the same authority, that the houses of 
the principal people of Tripoli, unlike those of the Egyptians, 
which are built high, never exceed one story. You first 
pass through a sort of ball or lodge, called by the Moors a 
skiffer, with benches of stone on each side. From this a 
staircase leads to a grand apartment, termed a gulphor, 
which possesses a convenience, not allowed in any other 
room, that, namely, of having windows facing the street. 
This chamber is held sacred to the master of the mansion. 
Here he holds his levees, transacts business, and enjoys con- 
vivial parties. None, even of his own family, dare enter it 
without his particular leave ; and, though such a restriction 
may seem arbitrary, yet a Moorish female, in this one in- 
stance, may be said to equal her lord in power ; as, if he 
finds a pair of lady's slippers at the door of her apartment, 
he cannot go in — he must wait till they are removed. Be- 
yond the hall or lodge is the courtyard, paved in a style of 
elegance proportioned to the fortune of the owner. Some 
are done with brown cement, resembling finely-polisrTed 
stone ; others are executed in black or white marble ; while 
those of the poorer class display nothing more expensive 
than pounded clay. The houses, whether large or small, in 
town or in country, are built on the same plan. The court 
is used for receiving female parties, entertained by the prin- 
cipal wife, upon the celebration of a marriage or any other 
feast ; and also, in cases of death, for the performance of 
such funeral services as are customary prior to the removal 
of. the body to the grave. On these occasions the pave- 
ment is covered with mats or Turkey carpets, and is shel- 
tered from the heat of the weather by an awning extended 
over the whole yard, for which the Moors sometimes incur 
great expense. Rich silk cushions are laid round for seats ; 
the walls are hung with tapestry, and the whole is converted 
into a grand saloon. This court is surrounded with a 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 1*79 



cloister, supported by pillars, over which a gallery is erected 
of the same dimensions, enclosed with a lattice-work of 
wood. From the cloister and gallery, doors open into large 
chambers not communicating with each other, which re- 
ceive light only from this yard. The windows have no 
glass, but are furnished with jalousies of wood curiously cut, 
admitting only a faint glimmering, and precluding all inter- 
course even by looks. The tops of the houses, which are 
flat, are covered with plaster or cement, and surrounded by 
a parapet about a foot high, to prevent any thing from imme- 
diately falling into the street. Upon these terraces the in- 
mates enjoy the refreshing Seabreeze, so luxurious after a 
parching day, and are here constantly seen at sunset, offering 
their devotions to Mohammed ; for, let a Moor be where he 
may, when he hears the muezzin announce the evening 
prayer, nothing induces him to pass that moment without 
prostrating himself to the ground— a circumstance surpri- 
sing to Europeans, if they happen to be in company, or even 
walking through the streets. 

In all parts of Barbary, a guard of two dragomans is sent 
by the government to reside at the houses of foreign con- 
suls and ministers, and to accompany the family when- 
ever they walk out. In Algiers, the Christians at one time 
found it necessary to allow these official protectors to dine 
at their tables ; where, of course, they acted as spies on all 
that passed, and were often the cause of much disturbance. 
At Tripoli a more liberal system has usually been adopted ; 
and the military attendants, who are, as far as is desirable, 
under the control of the embassy, may be increased or di- 
minished according to circumstances. 

Notwithstanding the despotic nature of the authority 
with which the pacha is invested, it is not difficult for the 
meanest subject to approach him, and make his case known . 
Often when he is on the seat of judgment, the cry of Shar- 
alia — Justice in the name of God — is heard resounding 
through the hall. The oppressed Moor calls out these 
words as he approaches, and before he has entered into the 
presence of his highness ; upon which the way is instantly 
made clear for the suppliant, who enjoys a prescriptive right 
to detain the great man till his grievances are redressed, 
Blaquiere also remarks that, though the Tripolines are cruel, 
the administration of justice is equal and lenient, Capital 



180 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



punishments are by no means frequent, and are never, in- 
deed, inflicted except in cases of murder, the breach of the 
seventh article of the Decalogue, and for crimes against the 
government. The amazing promptitude, moreover, with 
which delinquencies of every kind are punished, has often 
excited the admiration of Europeans. An individual is no 
sooner detected m the violation of a law, than he is seized 
and brought to the Kaya, who forthwith investigates the al- 
leged charges upon evidence ; and, if the cas'e involves no 
point of peculiar difficulty, the penalty awarded to the of- 
fence instantly follows conviction. This officer hears causes 
a certain number of hours every day. The pacha also, as 
already mentioned, presides at stated periods, according to 
the pressure of business ; on which occasions every man 
acts as his own advocate, and, in defending himself, is al- 
lowed to speak with a degree of freedom which would ihock 
the feelings of a European sovereign.* 

The bastinado is the punishment usually inflicted for all 
minor wickednesses ; or if imprisonment be added, it seldom 
exceeds two or three months, so that no man's labour is lost 
to the community. Thefts are checked in a very exemplary 
and curious manner ; the malefactor's right hand and left 
foot are taken off and suspended several days in a place of 
public resort. Executions are not allowed to be performed 
by Mohammedans — a sufficient number of Jews being always 
kept in reserve to discharge this public duty. 

The religious ceremonies, whether at births, deaths, or 
marriages, being the same at this regency as in other Moham- 
medan states, it is not our intention to enter upon any minute 
description of them. We should not, however, do justice to 
the reader, did we omit to abridge, from the letters written at 
the court of Tripoli, an account of a visit paid by an English 
lady to the family of the pacha in his formidable castle. On 
approaching this royal residence, you pass the first intrench- 
ments escorted by the hampers, or bodyguards ; after which 
you enter the courtyard, usually crowded with soldiers wait- 
ing before the skiffer or hall, where the kaya sits as judge. 
This is the principal officer belonging to his highness, and 
the deepest in his confidence ; without whose consent no 
subject can obtain an audience in the palace even on the most 



* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii, p. 66. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 181 



important business. Beyond this hall is a paved square with 
a piazza supported by marble pillars, in which is built the 
messeley, or council-chamber, where the pacha holds his 
levees on gala-days. It is finished on the outside with Chi- 
nese tiles, a number of which form an entire painting ; and a 
flight of variegated marble steps leads up to the door of it. 
The nubar, or royal band, performs with great ceremony be- 
fore the door of the messeley every afternoon, when the third 
marabout announces the prayers of lazzero at four o'clock, 
and on the whole of Wednesday night, being the eve of the 
accession to the throne. No one on any account can pass 
the music while it plays, and certain officers of state attend 
during the whole of the performance. Before it begins, the 
chief, or captain of the chouses, who in this instance . must be 
considered as a herald, goes through the ceremony of pro- 
claiming the pacha afresh. The sounds of the nubar, it is 
said, are singular to a European ear, being produced by the 
turbuka, a sort of kettle-drum, the reed, and the timbrel ; the 
first belongs to the Moors, the two latter to the negroes.* 

The numerous buildings added to the castle form several 
streets, at the end of which is the bagnio where the Chris- 
tian slaves are kept. No gentlemen are permitted to ap- 
proach nearer the harem, or ladies' apartments, than the 
place just named ; and from hence you are conducted by eu- 
nuchs through long vaulted passages, so extremely dark that 
it is with great difficulty the way can be discerned. On en- 
tering the harem a striking gloom prevails. The courtyard 
is grated over the top with heavy iron bars, very close to- 
gether, giving it a melancholy appearance. The galleries 
round this enclosure, before the chambers, are fortified with 
lattices cut very small in wood. The pacha's daughters, when 
married, have separate apartments sacred to themselves : no 
one can enter them but their husbands and attendants, eu- 
nuchs and slaves ; and if it is necessary for the ladies to speak 
in the presence of a third person, even to their father or 
brother, they must instantly veil themselves. The great 
number of servants filling up every avenue renders it almost 
impossible to proceed from One apartment to another. " We 
found some black slaves recently brought from Fezzan ex- 
tremely troublesome, from their alarming fears created at the 

* Tully's Letters, vol. i., p. 57, &c. 
Q 



182 



TRIPOLI AMD ITS 



sight of a European's dress and complexion. A miniature on 
a lady's arm was taken by one of these blacks for a sheitan 
or evil spirit. Its resemblance, though on a small scale,- to 
the human figure was so strong that, on suddenly perceiving 
it, she uttered convulsive screams, and it was only after much 
persuasion that she could be pacified. It is dangerous to 
come in their way with costly lace or beads ; the first, if they 
are suffered to touch, they quickly pull to pieces ; and the 
latter they instantly bite through in trying if they are genuine 
pearls. 

" On entering the apartment of Lilla Kebbiera, the wife of 
the pacha, we found her seated with three of her daughters. 
She is extremely affable, and has the most insinuating man- 
ner imaginable. She is not more than forty ; but her age is 
not spoken of, as it is against the Moorish religion to keep 
registries of births. She is still very handsome, a fair beauty 
with blue eyes and flaxen hair. On visiting this sovereign, 
the consuls' wives are permitted to kiss her head ; their 
daughters, or other ladies in their company, her right hand : 
her left she offers only to the dependants. If any of her 
blacks, or the domestics of the castle, are near her, they 
frequently seize the opportunity of kneeling down to kiss 
the end of her baracan or upper garment. — The bey, her el- 
dest son, has been married several years, having entered into 
wedlock at the age of seven. Indeed, the Moors marry so 
extremely young that the mother and her firstborn are often 
seen together as playmates, equally anxious and angry in 
an infantine game. The women here are frequently grand- 
mothers at twenty-six or twenty-seven ; and, therefore, it is 
no wonder that they occasionally live to see the children of 
many generations. — The apartment she was in was hung with 
dark-green velvet tapestry, ornamented with coloured silk 
damask flowers ; and sentences out of the Koran were cut 
in silk letters and neatly sewed on, forming a deep border at 
the top and bottom : below this, the walls were finished with 
tiles forming landscapes. The sides of the doorway and the 
entrance into the room were marble ; and, according to the 
custom of furnishing here, choice china and crystal encircled 
the room on a moulding near the ceiling. Close beneath 
these ornaments were placed large looking-glasses with frames 
of gold and silver ; the floor was covered with curious mat- 
ting and rich- carpeting over it : loose mattresses and cueh- 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 



183 



ions, placed on the ground, made up in the form of sofas, 
covered with velvet, and embroidered with gold and silver, 
served for seats, with Turkey carpets laid before them. The 
coffee was served in very small cups of china, placed in gold 
filigree cups without saucers, on a solid gold salver of an un- 
common size, richly embossed. This massive waiter was 
brought in by two slaves, who bore it between them round to 
each of the company ; and these two eunuchs were the most 
richly-habited slaves we had yet seen in the castle ; they were 
entirely covered with gold and silver. Refreshments were 
afterward served Up on low and beautifully inlaid tables, not 
higher than a foot from the ground ; and among the sherbets 
was fresh pomegranate-juice passed through the rind of the 
fruit, which gave it an excellent flavour. After the repast, 
slaves attended with silver filigree censers, offering at the 
same time towels with gold ends woven in them nearly half a 
yard deep. — We. were conducted over the harem, and though 
it was daylight, we were obliged to have torches on account 
of some long dark passages we had to go through. Could 
the subterranean ways and hidden corners of this castle tell 
the secret plots and strange events that happen daily within 
its walls, they would be most extraordinary to hear. When 
we came near the bagnio of the Christian slaves, our guide 
from the harem quitted us, and the guards, with the gentle- 
men who had waited for our return, conducted us through the 
outer fortifications."* 

The history of Tripoli is so closely connected with the an- 
nals of the Barbary States at large, that it would prove incon- 
venient to enter minutely into its details. Partaking of the 
ignorance which followed the conquest of the Saracens and 
the ascendency of the Turks, it ceased to engage the atten- 
tion of Europe till the ravages committed by the corsairs in 
the beginning of the sixteenth century excited the resentment 
of Charles V., the German emperor. Having subdued the 
Tripolines, he put their city under the government of the 
Knights of Malta, who kept possession of it till the year 
1551, when they were expelled by Sinan Pacha and the cel- 
ebrated Dragoot Rais. Returning to their wonted habits of 
piracy, the Moors in 1655 provoked the resentment of Crom- 
well, who sent Admiral Blake with a fleet to chastise the Tu- 



* Tully's Letters, vol. i., p. 67. 



184 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



nisians, and compel the other states to submit to terms. 
Twenty years, however, had scarcely elapsed, when it be- 
came necessary for the English to interpose again, as well 
for the safety of their trade as for the honour of the Christian 
name. Sir John Narborough, in 1675, with a squadron of 
ships, appeared before their port, to punish them for their 
frequent breach of treaty. The gallant manner in which the 
boats under the direction of Lieutenant Shovel, afterward the 
renowned Sir Cloudesley, made an attack on their men-of- 
war lying in the harbour, struck them at once with amaze- 
ment and terror. Seeing four of their largest vessels de- 
stroyed under their batteries, they relinquished all hopes of 
a successful resistance, and readily acceded to the conditions 
which the British admiral was authorized to propose. From 
that period, negotiation alone has sufficed to secure the pro- 
tection due to a triumphant flag, and without any actual ap- 
peal to force.* 

The Tripolitans were destined, however, to receive an- 
other severe and merited chastisement, after the lapse of more 
than a century, from a nation which, at the time of Sir 
John Narborough's expedition, had no distinct existence. 
Immediately after the termination of that unfortunate war, 
which ended in the recognition by England of American in- 
dependence, the commercial enterprise of the United States 
began to display itself in extraordinary vigour in every quar- 
ter of the globe ; and but a few years elapsed before their trade 
in the Mediterranean became so extensive and important as 
to require the presence of a naval force for its protection. At 
first, immunity from the depredations of the Barbary States 
was sought to be secured, after the long-established Euro- 
pean mode, by treaties, of which tribute was a prominent fea- 
ture ; but as early as 1798, the rising republic felt herself 
strong enough to look with disfavour upon this means of pro- 
tection, and to resolve upon abandoning it with the first op- 
portunity. In 1801, such an opportunity was afforded by a 
dispute which broke out between the Pacha and Major Ea- 
ton, the American consul, a man of great courage and firm- 
ness, but also of eccentric habits, rash, headstrong, and oth- 
erwise not well qualified to fulfil wisely the duties of that of- 
fice among a people so reckless of all moral obligations as the 



* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 82. 



IMMEDIATE DEPEN0ANCES. 185 



piratical Moors. The immediate result of this dispute was 
the formal suspension of the consul's functions by the pacha, 
attended with the ceremony of cutting down his flagstaff. 
A squadron was already on its way from the United States, 
the commander of which was charged to ascertain the state 
of the republic's relation with the Barbary States, and arrived 
before Tripoli about a month after the decisive measure ta- 
ken by the pacha, as mentioned above. Some negotiations 
ensued, but without effect ; and hostilities were shortly com- 
menced by the capture of a Tripolitan vessel of war, and 
the blockade of the port. During this blockade, a frigate, 
forming part of the American squadron, grounded while ma- 
king observations in the harbour ; she was fired upon by the 
batteries, and, after an obstinate resistance, compelled to sur- 
render. Subsequently she was got off the rocks by great ex- 
ertion, and being completely refitted, made a valuable addi- 
tion to the pacha's navy. At length a project was formed of 
burning her ; and this was gallantly accomplished by a few 
American sailors, headed by Lieutenant, afterward Commo- 
dore Decatur, who gained great reputation in a subsequent 
war between Great Britain and the United States. 

Soon after this the squadron attacked the batteries, and in 
a furious contest that lasted nearly five hours, destroyed many 
of the pacha's gunboats, and very severely injured the forti- 
fications and the town. The immediate result of this spirited 
proceeding was an offer on the part of the pacha for a renew- 
al of negotiations ; but as he insisted upon the payment of 
five hundred dollars, equal to about one hundred pounds ster- 
ling, as ransom for each of the prisoners taken in the frigate, 
his propositions were rejected, and the blockade still contin- 
ued. 

In the meantime an attack was made upon him from another 
quarter, involving circumstances of a character so novel as 
to merit a brief recital. The reigning pacha, Jusef, was a 
usurper, having driven from the throne his elder brother Ha- 
met Caramalli, who was now residing in exile at Tunis. 

Harriet, on the declaration of war by Jusef against the 
Americans, conceived that an opportunity had now presented 
itself for the recovery of his throne ; and to that end proposed 
an arrangement to the consul Eaton, which the latter at once 
assented to, with a chivalrous daring more allied to the spirit 
of a knight-errant in former days than to the methodical cus- 



186 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



toms of modern nations, or to the pacific character of his of- 
fice. He set out, with nine American sailors and about twenty- 
Greeks, whom he had induced to join him, in search of Ha- 
rriet Caramalli, with whom, after a long and fatiguing march, 
a junction was effected. The ex-pacha had mustered an 
army of x\rabs, Turks, and Bedouins, poorly equipped and 
organized, not exceeding five hundred men ; and with these 
slender forces they advanced through the desert to attack Ju- 
sef by land, while his attention was occupied by the naval 
operations of the blockading squadron. Nearly two months 
were employed in forcing their way across the Desert of 
Libya and through the Cyrenaica ; they had set out on the 
second of March, and it was not until the twentieth of April 
that they reached Derna, the second town of the regency, 
within view of the sea, and defended by an old castle. 

After a sharp attack of two hours, Derna was taken by as- 
sault, and for the first time since the creation of the world, 
the American flag was displayed in token of victory within 
the deserts of Africa. As soon as news of the capture reach- 
ed Jusef, he lost no time in proposing terms of peac ; ) ; and 
a gentleman having in the meantime arrived from the United 
States accredited as consul-general to all the Barbary States, 
a treaty was concluded with him upon terms but too favour- 
able to the pacha. Eaton withdrew in mortification and dis- 
appointment from Derna, and, returning to the United States, 
died soon after of the effects of a wound received at the ta- 
king of that place, heightened and irritated, it is said, by vex- 
ation and chagrin. Since that time, the flag of the republic 
has been respected by the Tripolitans. 

Down to the year 1714, the Turks exercised the govern- 
ment of Tripoli — a pacha as well as a regular army being 
from time to time appointed by the Porte, for the maintenance 
of authority and the collection of tribute. But at the epoch 
now mentioned, a revolution took place, the consequences of 
which have been perpetuated to the present day. Hamet, 
usually called the Great, was at that time bey, who, upon a 
temporary removal of his superior, applied to the sultan for 
the appointment, and obtained it. He had resolved upon a 
change in the administration of affairs, and the mode by which 
he accomplished his object was truly characteristic of the 
people to whom he owed his lineage. In the course of twenty- 
four hours he contrived to send away from the city all the 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 187 



Turkish soldiers ; and at his palace, not far distant, he'an- 
nounced a superb entertainment, to which he invited all the 
principal officers, civil and military, who held their commis- 
sions from Constantinople. Three hundred of these unfortu- 
nate victims were strangled, one by one, as they entered the 
skiffer or hall — a long passage with small dark rooms or deep 
recesses on each side, in which a hidden guard was placed. 
The soldiers assassinated the Turks one by one as they ar- 
rived, and dragging the bodies out of sight, removed all 
ground of suspicion until the whole had fallen under their 
hands. Those, too, who remained in the city, were next day 
found murdered, no doubt by order of the new pacha ; but no 
inquiry was anywhere made, with the view of discovering 
those who had perpetrated such horrid deeds. Only a few of 
the proscribed class survived to tell the dreadful tale. Large 
presents, it is said, were immediately sent to Constantinople, 
to appease the grand seignior ; and in a day or two no one 
dared to speak of the Turkish garrison which had been butch- 
ered with so much cruelty and premeditation. From that pe- 
riod the direct influence of the Porte was greatly lessened, 
the government being seized by the Moors, who have ever 
since retained the principal authority, though they continue 
to acknowledge the Ottoman emperor as their sovereign par- 
amount.* 

The reign of Hamet was distinguished for great talent and 
activity. He carried his arms into the interior, reduced 
Fezzan to his obedience, and the still more savage dis- 
tricts of Ghariana and Messulata. He had moreover the 
merit of encouraging ingenious foreigners to settle in his do- 
minions, and thereby improved many sources of national 
wealth, particularly the manufacture of woollens and the 
preparation of the finer kinds of leather. He lived till the 
year 1745 ; and upon his demise the supreme power was in- 
trusted to his second son, by whom it has been transmitted, 
though not in a direct line, as the hereditary right of the fam- 
ily who now occupy the throne, f 

* Tully's Letters, vol. i., p. 70. 

f Blaquiere, vol. ii., p. 86. The following are the principal©!* - 
ficers of state at Tripoli : — 

The Pacha's eldest son has the title of Bey, and usually acte 
as commander-in-chief. 



188 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



Fezzan, which still continues tributary to the descendants 
of Hamet the Great, is bounded by Tripoli on the north, 
by the Desert of Barea on the east, and by the Sahara 
on the west and south. The greatest length of the culti- 
vated country, from north to south, is about 255 miles, 
and its breadth 200 miles, from east to west. According 
to Hornemann, this small state contains 100 towns and 
villages, of which Moorzuk.is the capital. There is also 
Zuila, which, as narrated by old travellers, possessed mag- 
nificent ruins, though none of these wonders have been seen 
by the moderns. During the south wind, the heat is scarcely 
supportable even by the inhabitants, who on such occasions 
find it necessary to sprinkle their rooms with water, in order 
that they may be able to breathe. The winter, however, is 
not so mild as might be expected, owing to a cold piercing 
north wind, which completely chilled the natives when 
Hornemann was among them, and obliged this enterprising 
discoverer himself, inured as he was to the more frigid cli- 
mate of Europe, to have recourse to a fire. Rain, which 
seldom falls here, is enjoyed only to a very limited extent ; 
though the atmosphere is frequently disturbed by hurricanes, 
and darkened with clouds of dust and sand from the contig- 
uous waste. In no part of the country is there any river or 
stream worthy of the slightest notice ; but there are numer- 
ous springs which supply sufficient water for the purposes of 
irrigation. The whole of Fezzan 5 indeed, abounds in that 

The Aga commands all the Turkish soldiers in the Pacha's 
pay, now not exceeding 100. 

The Kaya or Chiah is Grand Judge ; presiding all day, ex- 
cept from twelve tilL three, at the castle-gate. 

The Hasnadar Grande is the chief officer of the treasury. 

The Hasnadar Piccolo is Treasurer of the Household. 

The Sheik el Bled administers the laws of the city as head 
magistrate. 

The Mufti is the head of the priesthood. 

The Kadi is judge in matters respecting the Mohammedan 
faith. 

The Mufti and Kadi assist the Pacha in the administration of 
justice when in full divan. 

The Kaids are the governors of districts, and have power to 
raise taxes and enforce the laws. 

The Hajjis are private secretaries to his highness, of whom 
he has generally two or three. 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 189 



clement at a moderate depth under ground, derived, no doubt, 
from the rains which moisten the hills on the confines of 
the Desert, and spread over the plain among the loose strata 
near its surface. 

The population has been estimated by recent travellers at 
60,000 or 70,000, obviously composed of a mixed people, as 
is made manifest by the variety of their complexions. The 
i indigenous race is of middling stature, of little vigour, of a 
i brown colour, black short hair, a regular countenance, and a 
i nose less flattened than that of the negro. As to religion, 
h the majority are Mohammedans, though it is remarked that 
l they live on good terms with such as still adhere to the 
rites of paganism. Their houses, we are told, are built of 
sun-dried bricks, made of calcareous and argillaceous earth ; 
they are extremely low, and receive light only by the door, 
f Dates are the natural produce and staple commodity of this 
[ country ; figs, pomegranates, and lemons, also come to per- 
. fection. A great quantity of maize and barley is cultivated ; 
I but as the inhabitants do not raise wheat sufficient for their 
\ own consumption, they receive a great part of what they use 
i from the Arabs, who, in some respects, are much better 
t husbandmen. We have already mentioned that caravans 
i are sent hence to Tripoli, Timbuctoo, and Bornou, who trade 
' chiefly in gold-dust and black slaves ; in pursuit of which ob- 
jects they proceed, it is probable, as far as the coast of Guinea. 
The oasis of Augila, as well perhaps as that of Siwah, 
f likewise belongs to the Tripoline sovereignty. The town, 
which is the residence of a bey, is described as small and 
; mean, having no public buildings but such as are of a very 
; wretched aspect. All the interest attached to the latter state, 
indeed, arises from its being the site of the celebrated temple of 
Ammon, the access to which, in ancient times, was consid- 
ered as almost entirely impracticable. It afforded a convenient 
station for the trade which the Cyrenians carried on with the 
central parts of Africa, whence they are supposed to have drawn 
the gold, silver, and precious stones, of which they formed the 
jewellery and those other works of taste and elegance wherein 
they excelled. The votive columns, ornamented with dol- 
phins, which are found on the route leading from Cyrene to 
Ammon ; the similarity in the architecture of both countries ; 
and the journey of the Cyrenians^ who acted as guides to 
Alexander in his visit to the temple of the Libyan deity, 



190 



TRIPOLI AND ITS 



prove that in fact the relations between them were estab- 
lished long before the reign of the Macedonian hero, since at 
that period they appear to have been masters of the oasis. 
The extent of this singular territory in the midst of an ap- 
palling wilderness, the excellence of its thermal waters, the 
fertility of its soil, and its advantageous position for com- 
merce, explain the interest which it constantly excited in the 
civilized nations who occupied the coast. It will, as M. 
Pacho remarks, be the same again, should civilization ever 
revisit the regions which it has so long abandoned. 

There is a set of men at Tripoli whom Mr. Blaquiere con- 
siders as the descendants of the ancient Psylli or Serpent- 
eaters, who, assuming a sacred character, are regarded at 
times with a species of veneration. Of this extravagant 
class of religionists we have a very good account in the pages 
of Captain Lyon, who witnessed one of their periodica] exhi- 
bitions when on his journey in Northern Africa. The mara- 
bouts, he tells us, are of two denominations ; idiots, who are 
allowed to say and do whatever they please ; and men pos- 
sessed of all their senses, who, by juggling and performing 
many bold and disgusting tricks, establish to themselves the 
exclusive right of being great rogues and nuisances. There 
are mosques in which these people assemble every Friday 
afternoon, where they eat snakes and scorpions, affect to be 
inspired, and commit the most revolting extravagances. 

In the month of January their annual festival begins, and 
continues three days with all its barbarous ceremonies. Be- 
fore the day on which it commences, the great marabout is 
supposed to inspire such as are to appear in the processions, 
and these, according to their abilities, are more or less mad 
and furious. The natural fools are always ready for the ex- 
hibition ; and it is amusing to observe their looks of aston- 
ishment at being on this occasion more than any other brought 
into public notice. During the time they parade the streets, 
no Christian or Jew can with any safety make his appear- 
ance, as he would, if once in the power of these wretches, 
be instantly torn in pieces. Indeed, if any person professing 
either of the hated religions shows himself on a terrace or at 
a window, he is sure to be saluted by a plentiful shower of 
stones from the boys who follow the progress of the infuriated 
saints. 

The captain, who was in the dress of the country, ventured 



IMMEDIATE DEPENDANCES. 191 



to go in the company of his dragoman to the mosque from 
which the procession was to set out. He felt that his situa- 
tion was a dangerous one ; but, being resolved on the attempt, 
he dashed into the crowd, and succeeded in getting near the 
performers, who, with dishevelled hair, were rapidly turning 
round, and working themselves up into a most alarming state 
of phrensy. A band of barbarous music was playing to them, 
while several men were constantly employed in sprinkling 
them with rose-water. When they were sufficiently excited, 
they sallied out into the streets. One had a large nail run 
through his face from one cheek to the other ; and all of them 
had bitten their tongues in so violent a manner as to cause 
blood and saliva to flow copiously. They were half naked, 
uttering, at short intervals, groans and howls ; and as they 
proceeded — sometimes three or four abreast, leaning on each 
other — they threw their heads backward and forward with a 
quick motion, which caused the blood to rise in their faces, 
and their eyes to project from their sockets in a frightful 
manner. Their long black hair, which grew from the crown 
of the head — the other parts being closely shaven — was con- 
tinually waving to and fro, owing to the violent agitation in 
which they indulged. One or two, who were the most furi- 
ous, and who continually attempted to run at the crowd, were 
held by a man on each side with a rope, or by means of a 
handkerchief tied round the middle. Captain Lyon observed, 
that whenever the marabouts passed the house of a Christian, 
they affected to be ungovernable, and endeavoured to get 
near it, pretending they had made the discovery by smelling 
out unbelievers. 

Two parties were, at the same moment, traversing the 
town ; but being of opposite sects, and at w 7 ar with each 
other, it was so arranged that they should take different 
routes. That which our countryman did not see was the 
principal one, and took its departure from under the walls of 
the castle. It was headed by a man named Mohammed, 
who had been much at the house of the captain, going errands, 
and attending his horses ; and who, before the time of the 
procession, had been confined in a dungeon, in consequence 
of his becoming furious. When all was in readiness for the 
ceremony, the pacha took his station at the balcony overlook- 
ing the arsenal ; and this man was no sooner set at liberty, 
than he rushed on an ass, and with one thrust pushed his 



192 



TRIPOLI, ETC. 



hand into the animal's side, from which he tore his bowels, 
and began to devour them. Many ate dogs and other living 
creatures ; and on that day, a little Jew boy was killed in the 
street either by the marabouts or their followers.* 

Captain Lyon adds, that, notwithstanding the prohibition 
of the prophet, drunkenness is more common in Tripoli than 
even in most towns of England. There are public wine- 
houses, at the doors of which the Moors sit and drink without 
any scruple ; and the saldanah, or place of the guard, has 
usually a few drunkards to disgrace its discipline. Among 
the better sort of people, too, there are a great many who 
drink hard ; but their favourite beverage is an Italian cor- 
dial, called rosolia, and not unfrequently a little rum. 

The intercourse with Europeans is commonly carried on 
in a corrupt dialect, composed of most of the tongues spoken 
along the northern shores of the Mediterranean. It has even 
been observed, that the language of Tripoli, as used by the 
natives, has admitted a great number of terms from the 
banks of the Tiber ; and that all such ideas as are foreign to 
the habits of an Arab, or a corsair, are expressed in the 
idiom of the modern Romans. 



* Narrative of Travels in Northern Africa, p. 9, 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 193 



CHAPTER VII. 

Tunis and its Dependances. 

Lands included in the Pachalic of Tunis — History resumed — 
Abou Ferez — His Court, Bodyguard, and Council — Invasion 
of Tunis by Louis IX. — Carthage reduced — Sufferings of the 
French — Death of the King — Arrival of the Sicilian Crusa- 
ders — Failure of the Expedition — Rise of the two Barbarossas, 
Horuc and Hayradin — The former invited to assist the King 
of Algiers — He murders him and seizes the Government — 
The Usurper defeated and slain — Algiers occupied by Hayra- 
din, who courts the protection of the Grand Seignior — Plans 
an attack on Tunis — Succeeds in his Attempt — Excites the 
Resentment of the Emperor Charles V. — The vast Prepara- 
tions in Italy and Spain — Barbarossa prepares for Defence — 
The Goletta is taken — A general Engagement ensues — The 
Moors are defeated and Tunis falls— The Town is sacked 
and plundered — Muley Hassan restored— Conditions — Ex- 
ploits of Barbarossa — Spaniards expelled by Selim II. — Tu- 
nisians elect a Dey — Government settled in a Bey — Rise of 
Hassan Ben Ali — Power absolute — Administration of Jus- 
tice — Description of Tunis — Soil and Climate — Army — Su- 
perstitions — Manners and Customs— Character of the Moors 
— Avarice of the late Bey — Population of the Regency — 
Revenue — Intemperance — Anecdote of Hamooda — Descrip- 
tion of Carthage— Cisterns and Aqueduct — Remains of a 
Temple — Appearance during the Fourth and Fifth Centuries 
—Details by Edrisi — Remark by Chateaubriand — Bizerta — 
Utica — HammamLeif— Sidi Doud — Kalibia — Ghurba — Nabal 
— KefF— Tubersoke — Herkla — Sahaleel — Monasteer — Lemp- 
ta — Agar — Demass — Salecto — Woodiif — Gabes — Jemme — 
S faitla— Gilma — C asareene — Feriana . 

Tunis, though the smallest of the Barbary States, is by 
no means the least important. Comprehending the territory 
which once belonged to Carthage, it affords to the reader 
many interesting recollections, and still presents the memori- 
als of some of the most striking events that mark the history 
of those great nations which contended for universal empire 
on the shores of the Mediterranean. 

R 



104 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



The lands included in this pachalic consist chiefly of a pen- 
insular projection on the African coast, stretching into the 
sea in a northeasterly direction so as to approach within less 
than 100 miles of the Island of Sicily. The river Zaine, or 
Tusca, forms the western boundary, separating it from the 
dominion of Algiers. From Cape Roux, in longitude 9° 30' 
E., and latitude 37° N.. the coast extends eastward to Cape 
Bon, with a slight inclination to the north. After turning 
that point, it takes a southeastern direction, terminating at 
the populous island of Jerba, where it touches the border of 
Tripoli — the whole forming an irregular line nearly 500 
miles in length. The breadth, reckoning from north to 
south, varies from 100 to 200 miles, according as the Atlas 
range, which divides it from the Blaid al Jerid, approaches 
or retires from the sea. The only rivers of importance are 
the Mejerdah — the Bagrada of Roman authors — which, 
after winding through a picturesque and fertile country, falls 
into the Mediterranean between Cape Carthage and Porto 
Farina ; and the Wad el Kebir — the ancient Ampsaga — 
which finds its outlet into the same great basin thirty miles east 
of Jigel. The Gulf of Tunis, one of the safest in this part of 
the world, runs up between Cape Bon and Cape Farina ; 
and, including the bay, its compass is about 120 miles, in 
every section of which there is excellent anchorage not far 
from the land.* 

In our general history of the Northern Shores of Africa, 
we brought down the annals of this petty monarchy until it 
was subdued by the Saracens. It was mentioned that the 
victorious Arabs placed the seat of their government at Kair- 
wan, where a viceroy, with the title of Emir, or Prince of 
the Believers, was invested with supreme power. This 
species of delegated authority, amid various wars and partial 
revolutions, continued till the year 1206, when a combina- 
tion of events elevated the Almahades, a new dynasty, 
to the throne of Morocco, with a jurisdiction which ex- 
tended over all the provinces of Barbary. The governor, 
whom this family nominated to Tunis, soon aspired to inde- 
pendence, and left his son, Abou Ferez, in the possession of 
so much influence as enabled him to contend with his sov- 

* Blaquiere, vol. ii., p. 135. Conder's Dictionary of Geogra- 
phy, p. 673. Balbi, Abrege.de Geographic, p. 879. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 195 



ereign for the command of the whole country, and, finally, to 
acquire the local honours of sultan. His court is said to 
have been regulated in the most splendid manner, and his 
system of administering public affairs is extolled as at once 
moderate and successful. His bodyguard consisted of 1,500 
Christians, besides which he had always on foot an immense 
army to repel invasion. There was also a national council, 
composed of 300 persons, distinguished for their probity and 
experience, without whose advice he undertook nothing of 
importance. This comparatively happy condition was a 
long time enjoyed by the Tunisians, though they suffered an 
occasional annoyance from the kings of Fezzan, who had 
assumed a warlike attitude, and even advanced at the head 
of their tumultuary followers to the margin of the great sea. 
It may therefore be asserted, that the government of Tunis 
was not exposed to any serious interruption till the beginning 
of the sixteenth century, when Muley Hassan was deposed 
by Hayradin Barbarossa — an occurrence which we shall im- 
mediately explain with some degree of minuteness.* 

In the year 1270, when this regency was under the do- 
minion of a prince whom the French historians call Omar 
El Muley Moztanca, Louis IX. was induced to invade its 
shores. To religious motives, which at that time were pro- 
fessed by all the sovereigns of Europe, there was added in 
this case a strong political consideration. The pirates of 
Tunis infested the Mediterranean ; they intercepted the suc- 
cours sent to the Christian armies in Palestine ; and they 
furnished the Sultan of Egypt with horses, arms, and troops. 
The destruction of this haunt of banditti was therefore a 
point of some consequence, as it would facilitate future ex- 
peditions to the Holy Land. The crusaders accordingly en- 
tered the bay in the month of July, and took possession of 
the native land of Hannibal in these words : — " We put you 
to the ban of our Lord Jesus Christ, and of Louis, king of 
France, his lieutenant." 

This monarch resolved to reduce Carthage, on the ruins 
of which several new edifices had been recently built, before 
he laid siege to Tunis, then an opulent, commercial, and 
fortified city. He dislodged the Saracens from the tower 
which defended the cisterns ; the castle was carried by as* 



* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 239, 



196 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



sault, and the new city followed the fate of the fortress ; 
but, says Chateaubriand, no sooner had Louis crossed the 
seas than prosperity seemed to forsake him ; as if he had 
been always destined to exhibit to the infidels a pattern of 
heroism in adversity. He could not attack Tunis till he had 
received the re-enforcements with which his brother, the King 
of Sicily, had promised to join him. Being obliged to in- 
trench himself on the isthmus, the army was attacked by a 
contagious disease, which in a few days swept away half of 
his troops. The African sun consumed men accustomed to 
live beneath a milder sky. To increase the sufferings of the 
French, the Moors raised the burning sand by means of ma- 
chines, and, scattering it before the southern breeze, ex- 
posed the Christians, by this fiery shower, to the effects of 
the kamsin, or terrible wind of the desert. Incessant en- 
gagements exhausted the remains of their strength : the liv- 
ing were not sufficient to bury the dead, whose bodies were 
thrown into the ditches of the camp, which were soon com- 
pletely filled with them. 

The principal nobility and the king's favourite son, the 
Count of Nevers, had already expired, when Louis found 
himself attacked by the disease. He was sensible from the 
first moment that it would terminate fatally, and that this 
shock could not fail to overpower a body worn out with the 
fatigues of war, the cares of a throne, and those painful 
vigils which he devoted to religion and to his people. Feel- 
ing his end approaching, he desired to be placed upon a bed 
of ashes, where he lay with his hands folded upon his 
bosom, and his eyes raised towards heaven. Meantime the 
fleet of the Sicilian monarch appeared on the horizon, 
while the plain and hills were covered with the army of the 
Moors. Amid the wrecks of Carthage, the Christian army 
presented an image of the profoundest grief ; a deathlike 
silence pervaded it, and the expiring soldiers, leaving the hos- 
pitals, crawled over the ruins to approach their dying monarch. 

At this crisis the trumpets of the Sicilian crusaders 
sounded, and their ships touched the shore, bringing succours 
which were no longer available. This signal not being an- 
swered, their royal commander was astonished, and began to 
apprehend some disaster. He landed ; he beheld the senti- 
nels with their pikes reversed, while the dejection visible in 
their faces expressed their grief much more strongly than 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



197 



this mark of military mourning. He flew to the tent of his 
brother, and found him extended lifeless on the humble bed 
which he had chosen. The expedition which had been the 
fruit of so much care, and was attended with such intense 
suffering, now proved to have been undertaken in vain.* 

More than 100 years elapsed before the affairs of Tunis 
again attracted the notice of Christian states. About the 
beginning of the sixteenth century, a sudden revolution hap- 
pened, which, by rendering the seaports of Barbary formida- 
ble to Europeans, has made their history more worthy of 
attention. This event was brought to pass by two individ- 
uals born in a low rank of life — Horuc and Hayradin — sons 
of a potter in the Isle of Lesbos. These youths, prompted 
by a restless spirit, forsook their father's trade, ran to sea, 
and joined a crew of pirates, among whom they soon distin- 
guished themselves by their valour and activity. Having 
collected several ships, the elder brother, who, from the red 
colour of his beard, obtained the name of Barbarossa, was 
appointed admiral, while Hayradin was nominated second in 
command. They called themselves the friends of the sea, 
and the enemies of all who sailed upon it ; and their char- 
acters soon became terrible, from the walls of Constantinople 
to the Straits of Gibraltar. 

a. d. 1516. As their fame and power extended, so" did 
their ambitious views ; and while acting as corsairs, they 
gradually adopted the ideas and acquired the talents of con- 
querors. Their attention was naturally drawn to the coast 
of Barbary, as a convenient situation for an establishment 
whence they might send forth their cruisers against the com- 
mercial states of Christendom. An opportunity soon oc- 
curred for accomplishing their object. The King of Algiers, 
having tried several times, without success, to take a fort 
which the Spanish governor of Oran had built in the vicinity 
of his capital, was induced to apply for aid to Barbarossa, 
whose valour and skill were highly prized. The wily pirate 
gladly accepted the invitation ; and leaving his brother Hay- 
radin with the fleet, he marched at the head of 5,000 men to 
Algiers, as the ally of Eutami, the shortsighted monarch. 
Such a force gave him the command of the town ; and see* 



* Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, and Barbary, vol. ii. 
p. 298. 



198 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



ing no reason to apprehend a serious opposition on the part 
of the native troops, he forthwith murdered their sovereign 
and proclaimed himself king in his stead. His liberality to 
the several chiefs procured their acquiescence in this violent 
change ; upon which he attacked the neighbouring ruler of 
Tremezen, whom he vanquished in battle and deprived of 
his lands. At the same time he continued to infest the 
coasts of Spain and Italy with fleets, which resembled the 
armaments of a great nation rather than the light squadrons 
of a piratical commander. 

a. d. 1518. Their frequent and cruel devastations obliged 
the Emperor Charles V. to furnish the Marquis de Co- 
mares, governor of Oran, with troops sufficient to attack 
him. This officer, assisted by the dethroned king of Tre- 
mezen, executed the commission with such spirit, that 
Barbarossa, being beaten in several encounters, shut himself 
up in the capital of the prince just named. After defending 
it to the last extremity, he was overtaken in attempting to 
make his escape, and slain, while he fought with an obsti- 
nate courage not unworthy of his former exploits. 

The sceptre of Algiers now fell to Hayradin, who is like- 
wise known to history by the epithet of Red-beard. His 
ambition and abilities, which were not inferior to those of his 
brother, were seconded by a more propitious fortune. Dread- 
ing the vengeance of the Europeans, and the treachery of 
his own subjects, he put his dominions under the protection 
of the grand seignior, and received from him in return a body 
of Turkish troops sufficient for his security against domestic, 
as well as foreign enemies. As the fame of his achieve- 
ments daily increased, Solyman offered him the command of 
his fleet, as the only person whose skill and resolution enti- 
tled him to take the sea against Andrew Doria, the greatest 
admiral of that age. Proud of this distinction, he repaired to 
Constantinople, where he gained the entire confidence of the 
sultan and his vizier. To them he communicated a scheme 
which he had formed for making himself master of Tunis, the 
most flourishing kingdom at that time on the coast of Africa ; 
and this being approved by them, he obtained whatever force 
or other means he demanded for carrying it into execution. 

His principal hopes in this expedition w r ere founded on the 
intestine divisions which then prevailed in the kingdom of 
Tunis. Muley Hassan, the youngest son of Mohammed, the 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPEND ANCES. 199 



late ruler of that country, had, through the influence of his 
mother, been raised to the government, and signalized the 
beginning of his reign by putting to death all the members 
of his family whom he could get into his power. Alraschid, 
one of the eldest of his brothers, finding a retreat among the 
Arabs, made several attempts to recover his throne ; but fail- 
ing of success, and being apprehensive that his faithless allies 
would deliver him up into the hands of the tyrant, he im- 
plored the protection of Barbarossa, who received him with 
every mark of friendship and respect. Being about to sail 
for Constantinople, he easily prevailed upon the unfortunate 
prince to accompany him thither ; assuring him that the 
head of the empire w 7 ould make haste to redress his wrongs, 
and lend to his cause the most effectual aid, in men as well 
as in the munitions of war. It was then that the treacherous 
pirate opened to the sultan his plan for reducing Tunis to the 
obedience of the Turks ; making use of Alraschid's name, 
and co-operating with the party who longed for his restora- 
tion. 

A powerful fleet and numerous army were soon assembled ; 
but the unhappy son of Mohammed was not permitted to ac- 
company them, being, at the very moment the expedition 
was about to sail, arrested by the order of his imperial high- 
ness, and thrown into confinement. Barbarossa in due time 
appeared before Tunis, announcing to the inhabitants that he 
had come to assert the rights of their legitimate sovereign. 
Muley Hassan, whose severe rule had alienated the affec- 
tions of his subjects, soon found himself compelled to fly ; 
the people took arms in behalf of their exiled prince ; and 
the gates were opened to the valiant hero who had with so 
much apparent generosity espoused his interests. But when 
Alraschid himself did not appear, and when, instead of his 
name, that of Solyman alone was heard among the acclama- 
tions of the foreign soldiers, the citizens began to suspect 
the duplicity of which they had been made the victims. It 
was in vain for the conqueror to repeat his asseverations, that 
their king had been left sick on board the admiral's galley ; 
their apprehensions and resentment eould not be calmed ; 
they accordingly resumed their weapons with the utmost 
fury, surrounding the castle into which he had led his troops. 
But he, having foreseen such a result, was not unprepared 
for it ; he immediately turned against them the artillery on 



200 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES, 



the ramparts ; and soon forced them to acknowledge the 
grand seignior as their lord paramount, and to submit to 
himself as his lieutenant. 

The fortunate corsair lost no time in preparing for what- 
ever attack might be made upon him from within or from 
without. He strengthened the citadel which commands the 
town, and fortified the Goletta in a regular manner, making 
it the principal station for his fleet, and the great arsenal for 
naval as well as military stores. He now resumed his depre- 
dations on the Christian states with more destructive violence 
than ever ; spreading his cruisers over the whole of the Med- 
iterranean. The eyes of all the maritime powers were di- 
rected to the emperor, whose territories in Italy and Spain 
were exposed in a particular manner to the ravages of the 
Tunisian plunderers. At the same time, Muley Hassan, who 
in his turn had beeome a suppliant, applied to Charles as the 
only person who could effectually assert his rights in opposi- 
tion to so formidable a usurper. 

a. d. 1535. Having made due preparations for war upon 
the barbarian chief, the emperor set sail on the 16th July 
from Cagliari, in Sardinia, his fleet consisting of nearly five 
hundred vessels, and having on board some of the best-disci- 
plined troops in Europe. The united strength of his domin- 
ions, indeed, had been called out to take part in an enterprise 
in which he was about to hazard his glory. A Flemish squad- 
ron had conveyed from the harbours of the Low Country a 
body of German foot ; the galleys of Naples and Sicily took 
on board the veteran bands of Italians and Spaniards who 
had distinguished themselves by so many victories over the 
French ; he himself embarked at Barcelona with the flower 
of the Spanish nobility, and was joined by a considerable flo- 
tilla from Portugal, commanded by Don Louis, brother to the 
emperess. Andrew Doria conducted his own ships, the best 
appointed at that time in Europe, and directed by the most 
skilful officers. The Pope furnished all the assistance in his 
power towards so pious an undertaking ; and the Knights of 
Malta, the avowed enemies of the infidels, equipped some light- 
sailing vessels, which, though small, were rendered formidable 
by the valour of their crews and commanders. Doria dis- 
charged the office of high-admiral ; while the Marquis de Guas- 
ta acted under his master as lieutenant-general of the army. 

Barbarossa, who, in the meantime, remained not ignorant 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 201 



of these immense preparations, had recourse to the most 
vigorous and prudent means for the defence of his new con- 
quest. He summoned his cruisers from their different sta- 
tions ; drew from Algiers his whole disposable force ; and 
despatched messengers to all the African princes, whom he 
contrived to alarm by the intelligence that the Christian pow- 
ers had combined to extirpate the Mohammedan faith on the 
southern shores of the Mediterranean. This appeal to their 
bigotry and national pride was answered by the appearance of 
20,000 horsemen, with a large body of foot, under the walls 
of Tunis. But his trust was chiefly reposed in the Turkish 
soldiers, most of whom were armed and disciplined after the 
European fashion, and in the strength of the .Groletta, which 
had been carefully supplied with all things necessary to with- 
stand a protracted siege. The command of the garrison was 
confided to Sinan, who, though a Jew by birth, had professed 
his belief in the prophet, and was esteemed the boldest and 
most experienced of all the piratical leaders. His courage 
and talents, however, were found unavailing against the bat- 
teries which played upon the fort, from the sea as well as the 
land. The place was taken by storm on the 25th July, when 
the Tunisian fleet, amounting to nearly ninety sail, the ar- 
senal, and about three hundred pieces of brass cannon, fell 
into the hands of the assailants. 

The son of the Lesbian potter, though he felt the full 
weight of the blow which he had received, did not sink un- 
der it. Despairing, however, of defending the walls of the 
city against a force so well acquainted with all the arts of 
attack, he resolved to advance at the head of the army, 
whose numbers were not under 50,000, and to provoke the 
invaders to an engagement. He proposed, at the same time, 
to his principal officers, that, as there were 10,000 Christians 
confined in the citadel, a general massacre should be ordered 
before they marched, as it would prove extremely hazardous, 
should the Moslem be worsted in the field, to have so large 
a body of men menacing their rear. They all warmly ap- 
proved of the intention to fight ; but, inured as they were to 
scenes of bloodshed, the suggestion as to the Nazarene slaves 
filled them with horror. It was therefore resolved to spare 
their lives ; though the issue proved that the humanity of 
Barbarossa was more at fault than his foresight or policy. 
The Europeans, who, encamped aimd the sand, would 



202 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



soon have suffered from the intemperance of the climate, 
were not less desirous than their opponents to terminate their 
labours by a battle. Each, accordingly, advanced to meet 
the other. The Moors and Arabs rushed on to the attack 
with loud shouts ; but their undisciplined courage could not 
long withstand the shock of regular battalions ; and though 
Barbarossa, with great presence of mind, endeavoured to 
rally them, the rout soon became so general, that he himself 
was hurried along with them in their flight back to the city. 
There he found every thing in the utmost confusion ; some 
of the inhabitants preparing for flight ; others ready to throw 
open the gates to the conquerors ; the Turkish soldiers on 
the point of retreating ; and the citadel, which, in different 
circumstances, might have afforded him some refuge, already 
in the possession of the Christian captives. These unhappy 
men, rendered desperate by their situation, had laid hold on 
the opportunity which Redbeard dreaded. As soon as the 
army was at some distance from the town, they prevailed 
upon the keepers to knock off their fetters ; and bursting 
open the prisons, they overpowered the Turkish garrison, and 
turned the artillery of the fort against their savage masters. 
Filled with rage and disappointment, the Viceroy of Tunis 
left the scene of his former triumph, and fled with precipita- 
tion to Bona. 

Charles proceeded slowly towards the city, not knowing 
that it w T as already secured for him by the insurrection of 
the Christian prisoners, and that all regular opposition had 
ceased. It is probable that he would have treated with len- 
ity a people who had been insnared into rebellion, and com- 
pelled to acknowledge a foreign crown, while they imagined 
that they were fighting for their lawful sovereign. But the 
impatience of his victorious troops prevented all deliberation ; 
for, fearing lest they should be deprived of booty, they rushed 
suddenly and without orders into the town, and began to kill 
and plunder without distinction. Above thirty thousand of 
the innocent inhabitants perished on that unhappy day, and 
ten thousand were carried away as slaves. Muley Hassan 
took possession of a throne surrounded with carnage, abhor- 
red by his subjects, on whom he had brought such calamities, 
and pitied even by those whose rashness had been the occa- 
sion of them. The emperor lamented the fatal accident 
which had stained the lustre of his victory ; and amid such a 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPEND ANCES. 203 



scene of horror there was but one spectacle that afforded him 
any satisfaction. Ten thousand Christian slaves, among 
whom were several persons of distinction, met him as he en- 
tered the town ; and, falling on their knees, thanked and 
blessed him as their deliverer. 

At the same time that Charles made good his promise to 
the Moorish king, of re-establishing him in his dominions, he 
did not neglect what was necessary for bridling the power of 
the African corsairs, for the security of his own subjects and 
the interests of his dominions. In order to gain these ends, 
he concluded a treaty with Muley Hassan on the following 
conditions : — " That he should hold the kingdom of Tunis in 
fee of the Spanish crown, and do homage to the emperor as 
his liege-lord ; that all the Christian slaves now within his 
territory, of whatever nation, should be set at liberty without 
ransom ; that no subject of the emperor should for the future 
be detained in servitude ; that no Turkish corsair should be 
admitted into any of his ports ; that free trade, together with 
the unrestrained exercise of their religion, should be allowed 
to all the emperor's subjects ; that Charles should not only 
retain the Goletta, but that all the other seaports in the king- 
dom which were fortified should be put into his hands ; that 
Muley Hassan should pay annually 12,000 crowns for the 
subsistence of the Spanish garrison in the Goletta ; that he 
should enter into no alliance with any of the emperor's ene- 
mies, and should present to him every year, as an acknowl- 
edgment of his vassalage, six Moorish horses, and as many 
hawks." Having thus settled the affairs of Tunis, the vic- 
torious monarch returned home ; being prevented by tempes- 
tuous weather, and the appearance of sickness among his 
troops, from pursuing Barbarossa, who could not be expected 
to resign power without a farther struggle.* 

The subsequent portion of this adventurer's career may be 
partly traced in the maritime war which succeeded the alli- 
ance formed between the Grand Turk and Francis the First. 
In the year 1543, he sailed with a fleet of a hundred and ten 
galleys, and, coasting along the shore of Calabria, made a 
descent at Reggio, which he plundered and burnt ; and, ad- 
vancing from thence to the mouth of the Tiber, he stopped 

* See History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V., vol. 
iii., p. 90 ; and Cardonne. Hist, de l'Afrique, tome hi., p. 55-73. 



204 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



there to water. The citizens of Rome, ignorant of his inten- 
tions, and filled with terror, began to fly with such general 
precipitation, that the city would have been totally deserted 
had not an assurance been given by the French envoy that 
no violence would be offered to any state on friendly terms 
with the king his master. From Ostia, the pirate-chief 
directed his course to Marseilles, where he was joined by the 
Count D'Enghien, at the head of a powerful armament ; 
whence, after a short delay, the combined squadrons proceeded 
towards Nice. There, to the astonishment and scandal of 
all Christendom, the lilies of France and the crescent of 
Mohammed appeared in conjunction against a fortress on 
which the cross of Savoy was displayed. In short, the assist- 
ance received from Solyman was attended with so much 
odium, that the Gallic monarch dismissed Barbarossa, who, 
after ravaging at pleasure the coast of Naples and Tuscany, 
returned with his ships to Constantinople. 

The successors of Muley Hassan held Tunis till 1574, 
when the Spaniards, who protected them, were expelled by 
Sultan Selim II., who wrested the Goletta from Philip, and 
put an end to the Moorish dynasty. The Turks assumed 
the government, which was administered by the aid of a 
large body of janizaries, and a divan chiefly composed of mil- 
itary men. At length the people, who complained loudly of 
the tyranny exercised upon them by their new rulers, were 
permitted, after the manner of the Algerines, to elect their 
own dey — an officer whose functions approached nearer to 
royalty than those formerly discharged by the pacha. The 
first of these did not long enjoy his dignity, being assassi- 
nated soon after his elevation. He was succeeded by Ibra- 
him, who, perceiving the danger with which he was sur- 
rounded, relinquished his authority and retired to Mecca ; 
assuming for this purpose the pretext of devotion, though ob- 
viously influenced by the fear of encountering a fate similar 
to that which had carried off his predecessor. In fact, of 
twenty-three who were raised to this perilous distinction, 
only five escaped murder or expulsion. 

Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the beys of 
Tunis became possessed of the chief authority. A regular 
monarchy was then established ; and Mohammed Bey, the 
author of the revolution, was made the first sovereign. But 
this new order of things was no sooner established than de- 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 205 



ranged ; for the Dey of Algiers, taking offence at the Tu- 
nisians, laid siege to their city, drove their monarch from his 
throne, and substituted in his place Ahmed Ben Chouques. 
The fugitive prince, however, who soon collected a band of 
followers among the Arabs, recovered his right by force of 
arms, and at length bequeathed the supreme power to his 
brother, whose name was Ramadan. The mild character of 
this last promised his subjects a tranquil reign ; but their 
hopes were disappointed by the guilty ambition of his nephew 
Morat, who rebelled against him, and took away his life. 
Of this usurper the government was cut short by Ibrahim 
Cherif, a Turk, who put a period to it by assassinating him in 
the month of June, 1702. The author of such a benefit was 
by the people judged worthy of the succession ; but as the 
fortune of war was unpropitious to him, he fell into the hands 
of the Algerines, and afterward obtained his liberty only to lose 
his head. The arrny elected Hassan Ben Ali, the grandson 
of a Greek renegado, to be his substitute ; and with this ob- 
scure personage originated ihe family which has held the 
sceptre of Tunis without interruption until the present day. 

Ambition and treason have no doubt repeatedly disturbed 
the succession among brothers and cousins, who, in order to 
possess even a precarious authority, hesitated not to imbrue 
their hands in one another's blood. But since 3 782, peace 
and security have generally prevailed. The remembrance of 
past calamities, and the example of Algiers, have taught the 
Tunisians to guard against the restless disposition of the 
Turks, and to exclude them carefuliy from any share in the 
government. The beys have therefore endeavoured to abol- 
ish, by degrees, the power which they had usurped ; they 
have made a point of keeping them out of all the important 
places of administration ; and suffered them to fill such only 
as have but a mere shadow of influence attached to them. 
Thus, though the reigning family may be looked upon as 
Turkish, since Hassan Ben Ali, their founder, was descended 
from a Greek, the actual government is nevertheless decided- 
ly Moorish.* 

It is mentioned by a late traveller, that the authority of the 
bey, which was originally in some degree limited, is now be- 
come practically absolute, so that the members of the divan 



* Chateaubriand's Travels, voL u\, p. 352. Memoir on Tunis*. 



206 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



have little weight on his decisions. When, therefore, they 
are called together, it is merely to give a colour to his pro- 
ceedings ; and though by the letter of the constitution they 
are invested with the privilege of electing their ruler, whose 
office is not strictly hereditary, the decision in this important 
matter is usually pronounced by the relatives of the deceased 
monarch, who are supposed to be best acquainted with the 
talents of the royal progeny.* 

The bey is supreme magistrate and judge in his own do- 
minions. He passes a considerable part of each day in the 
hall of justice, and constant habits of observation have made 
him such a physiognomist, that, where self-interest does not 
interfere, the judgment has been seldom found to err. It is 
highly interesting to those Europeans who visit the palace, 
to see the crowds that constantly resort to the tribunal of his 
highness ; for the easiest access is afforded to all classes of 
his subjects, to whose complaints and grievances a patient 
ear is directed. Without the intervention of lawyers, his 
sentence is speedily pronounced, and not less promptly ex- 
ecuted ; for, on hearing the respective parties, and examining 
the evidence on both sides, he makes a sign with his hand — 
an indication known only to his officers — denoting the pun- 
ishment which is to be inflicted, whether bastinado, imprison- 
ment, or the more severe penalty of death. 

Bat, leaving the history of this barbarian state, we shall 
advert very briefly to the actual condition of its principal 
towns, and the manners of the inhabitants. Tunis itself, the 
capital of the pachalic, stands on the western brink of a lake 
between twenty and thirty miles in circumference, which com- 
municates with the gulf through the narrow entrance of the 
Goletta. The strength of the place consists in the several 
fortresses which command this approach, and which were 
formerly thought capable of defying the strongest fleets in 
Europe. When Blake, on the occasion already mentioned, 
presented himself on the coast to demand reparation for the 
injuries inflicted on the commerce of England, the dey de- 
sired him to look at the castles of Porto Farina and Goletta, 
and do his utmost. The admiral required not to be roused 
by such a bravado ; he drew his ships close up to the forts, 
and tore them in pieces with his artillery. He sent a numer- 



* Blaquiere, vol. ii., p. 234. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 207 



ous detachment of sailors in their longboats into the harbour, 
and burnt every vessel that lay there. This bold action, 
which its very temerity, perhaps, rendered safe, was executed 
with little loss, and filled all that part of the world with the 
renown of his country's valour.* 

The city itself is placed on a rising ground, but has never- 
theless the great disadvantage of being encompassed by 
swamps and marshes, which, in a less favourable climate, 
would render it extremely unhealthy. It is supposed to be 
about three miles in circumference, and to contain nearly 
150,000 inhabitants. The number of houses has been com- 
puted at 12,000, though it is acknowledged that they are 
neither lofty nor magnificent. The town, according to Mr. 
M'Gill, is surrounded with a miserable wall of mud and stone, 
fitted neither for ornament nor for use. The buildings are 
of mean architecture ; the whole city not presenting one 
worthy of description. " The bey," says he, " is erecting a 
palace, which, when finished, may perhaps be handsome ; but 
it is buried in a dirty narrow street ; and, that nothing may be 
lost, the ground-floor is intended for shops. He is also build- 
ing extensive barracks for his soldiers. The streets are nar- 
row, dirty, and unpaved ; the bazars are of the poorest ap- 
pearance, and but indifferently stocked with merchandise. 
The inhabitants who crowd their miserable alleys present the 
very picture of poverty and oppression."t 

It was at one time the intention of his highness to drain 
the lake, and to form a channel in which vessels of burden 
might proceed to the town, where a handsome port was to be 
prepared, fitted to contain not only merchantmen, but also 
the national ships of war. Many obstacles, however, arose 
to prevent the execution of this princely design. The with- 
drawing of the water from so large a surface might, it was 
said, create bad air, and the country, which had just been 
scourged by the pestilence, might again be visited by disease. 
The engineers were also of opinion that ten years would be 
necessary to complete the work, with the labour of 10,000 
slaves, and a great outlay of money and materials. For these 
reasons the plan was abandoned, and he has contented him- 

* Hume's History of England, vol. vii., p. 254. 

f Account of Tunis, p. 56. Mr. M'Gill remarks, that the pop- 
ulation must be great ; but in Mohammedan countries it is not 
permitted to number the people. 



208 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 

self with constructing a small harbour at the Goletta. Into 
this vessels of moderate size can enter through a handsome 
canal built of stone, in which there are at all times fifteen 
feet of water. We may add, that the lake is daily becoming 
more shallow, and will, it is probable, at no distant date, ac- 
complish by natural means the object on which Hamooda was 
willing to expend so much labour and wealth. 

The climate of Tunis is one of the finest in the world, and 
admirably adapted for the production of most of those articles 
which, for the supply of Europe, are brought from an im- 
mense distance. All the coast of Barbary is capable of bear- 
ing cotton, sugar, and spices of almost every kind. Indigo 
and silk might also be procured with a little care. The soil, 
too, throughout the whole state, is remarkably good, and, 
with scarcely any cultivation, renders to the husbandman an 
astonishing return. The district to the eastward gives in a 
good year even a hundred fold. But the contrast is great 
when the usual rains are withheld. The ground then be- 
comes arid and steril ; the seed perishes in the furrow ; the 
olive appears shrivelled and withered ; and the flocks die for 
want of food. Such, it is said, was the dreadful spectacle 
in 1805, when thousands of human beings, as well as of the 
lower animals, sunk under the pressure of famine. 

It is remarkable, that throughout the greater part of the 
regency, the water in the springs is either salt or hot. There 
are, indeed, some fountains, such as those at Zowan, which 
supply a cool and refreshing beverage ; but the water used 
at Tunis is that which is collected during the winter in 
cisterns. With one of these reservoirs each house is pro- 
vided ; and as the roofs are flat, every drop of rain is saved. 
On this subject, it is not undeserving of notice, that the 
natives of the interior, who are accustomed to their salt and 
tepid currents, not only experience no inconvenience from 
such an unpalatable draught, but even prefer it to the more 
natural state of the liquid in streams or fountains.* 

Mr. M'Gill observes, that the regency of Tunis was never 
on so respectable a footing as it is at present ; and the sub- 
ject never before enjoyed such independence, and so great a 
degree of protection from external enemies. The troops of 
Hamooda, also, are better paid than those of any former 



* Account of Tunis, p. 62 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 209 



prince ; and though they are much more like a band of free- 
booters than a regular army, yet they are sufficient to keep 
in check his principal foes, the Algerines, who cannot in any 
respect be pronounced better soldiers. It is presumed that, 
under his successor, Sidi Hassan, who ascended the viceregal 
throne in 1824, the progress of improvement has not been 
checked. 

Thirty years ago, a Christian could scarcely walk through 
the streets, much less the country, without being insulted. 
This, says M. Blaquiere, seldom occurs now ; and although 
the hatred of the natives towards the Jews and Nazarenes has 
not subsided in the least, the fear of punishment is a certain 
bar to their insolence. Even in the days of Dr. Shaw, he 
could pronounce the Tunisians the most civilized nation of 
Barbary ; having very little of that haughty behaviour which 
was then very common at Algiers. They had for some 
years, if we may trust to his favourable report, been more in- 
tent on trade and the improvement of their manufactures than 
upon plundering and cruising. 

The great body of the inhabitants are Moors ; the number 
of Jews being about 30,000, while the Christians are not sup- 
posed to exceed 1,500. The people of Tunis present little 
in manners or usage peculiar to their country, or which may 
not be found among other Mohammedans. From their great 
ignorance, they are, as might be expected, extremely super- 
stitious ; and hence, most of their actions are guided by 
omens, signs, or prognostications. In their religion, too, 
they are thought to be more rigorous than their brethren 
elsewhere. Mosques which, even in Constantinople, may be 
visited with impunity, would at Tunis be regarded as utterly 
profaned were they entered by any individual not of their 
own belief. It is even asserted, that for such an offence a 
Christian would forfeit his life. 

The evil eye is a superstition which prevails greatly among 
the African Mussulmans. If a horse, mule, or any domesti- 
cated animal belonging to one person be praised by another, 
it is considered as irretrievably lost ; and a child that is ad- 
mired is expected with certainty to meet some misfortune. 
The unlucky omen of thirteen sitting down at the same table, 
has no less influence among ignorant Turks and Moors than 
it has among certain classes in Europe, who maintain that 
the same individuals will never meet again. A strange be- 



210 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



lief obtains among the people of Barbary, which they say is 
founded on an ancient prophecy, that their country is to be 
taken from them on a Friday, during the hour of prayer at 
noon. For this reason the gates of their cities are carefully 
locked during that service, and no one is allowed to pass 
until the mid-day devotion is ended. It is also predicted, 
that the country is to be taken by a people clothed in red ; 
and they themselves anticipate that this exploit is to be 
achieved by the English. " It will certainly be a matter of 
regret," says Mr. M'Gill, " if the prophecy is not fulfilled. "* 

Before their armies march on any expedition, the astrolo- 
gers are employed to watch the rising of a particular star. 
Should it attain the horizon in a clear sky, they augur good, 
discharge their artillery, and plant the standard round which 
the camp is to be formed ; but if it rise obscured by clouds 
or by a fog, they consider the omen unfavourable, and defer 
the display of their national flag until another day. When 
the camp breaks up, which is usually established near the 
bey's palace, a pair of black bulls are sacrificed as the com- 
mander passes. The arrival of a detachment to join the main 
army was attended with impressive circumstances. Before 
entering the gates of Tunis, we are told, they grounded their 
colours and arms, knelt down, and prayed. After this cere- 
mony they advanced into the city ; when the ladies from the 
roofs of the houses saluted them with their " loo-loo" and 
the men answered by the discharge of their muskets. 

The Moors here are said to be less jealous of their wives 
than the Turks. The latter have them guarded and watched 
very strictly, whereas the former allow them a consider- 
able degree of freedom. They are served by Christian 
slaves, and fear less to be seen uncovered by them than by 
their own countrymen. It is doubtful, however, whether 
this greater liberty does not arise from the contempt or in- 
difference with which they regard all mankind who do not 
profess the Mohammedan faith. The cut inserted opposite 
represents a lady of condition, accompanied by one of the 
other sex in the same rank of society. 

The Tunisians have a curious custom of fattening their 
young women for marriage. A girl, after she is betrothed, 
is cooped up in a small room, when shackles of gold and sil- 



* Account of Tunis, p. 87. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 211 




Moorish Lady and Fashionable Moor. 



ver are put upon her ankles and wrists, as a piece of dress. 
If she is to be united to a man who has already had a wife, 
the shackles which the former spouse wore are put upon the 
new bride's limbs ; and she is fed until they are filled up to 
the proper thickness. The food used for this purpose, wor- 
thy of barbarians, is a seed called drough ; which is of an 
extraordinary fattening quality, and also famous for rendering 
the milk of nurses rich and abundant. With this and their 
natural dish cuscusou, the young female is literally crammed, 
and many, it is asserted, die under the spoon. 

It is hardly necessary to observe, that a plurality of wives 
is allowed in Barbary as well as in all Mohammedan coun- 
tries. A man, it is well known r may have four, and as many 
concubines as he can maintain. It seldom happens, how- 
ever, that a Moor has more than two at the same time but 
the ceremony of divorcing them is so simple, that he may 
change as often as he finds it convr>nic(\&„ 



212 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



This people show great respect to their dead relations. 
On holydays they are to be seen praying at their tombs, 
which are kept clean, and whitewashed ; and any infidel who 
should dare to enter them would certainly suffer a severe 
punishment from the enraged enthusiasts. 

We require not to be told, that in Barbary the fine aits are 
totally abandoned ; and, like all other ignorant tribes, the 
Moors seek to destroy each vestige of ancient grandeur 
which happens to remain in their country. Every piece of 
fine marble which they find in any way polished or sculptured, 
is studiously broken to atoms ; suspecting from its weight, 
or the care bestowed upon it, that it must contain money. 
Statues seldom escape mutilation from the same idea, as well 
as from their abhorrence of idolatry — a use to which they 
imagine such works must originally have been appropriated. 
They have no paintings in their houses ; and the extreme 
jealousy of the government renders it unsafe for any who 
knows the principles of the art to indulge his taste even in 
the most private manner. Their music, it is added, is of the 
most barbarous kind ; the braying of an ass is sweeter than 
their softest note, whether vocal or instrumental.* 

Mr. M'Gill, our best authority on this subject, has a very 
bad opinion of the character of the Moors, who, he says, are 
proud, ignorant, cunning, full of deceit, avaricious, and un- 
grateful. In dealing with these barbarians, he adds, it is a 
mistaken notion on the part of Europeans to treat them either 
with friendship or delicacy ; they have no regard for either. 
If they do not commit outrages on your person and prop- 
erty, their forbearance proceeds, not from justice or human- 
ity, but from fear or interest. The first moment that offers in 
which they may with impunity defraud or plunder a Chris- 
tian, their hatred and thievish inclinations will be gratified. 
In order to be respected or kindly used by any of the Bar- 
bary powers, the rod must be kept over their heads. You 
must begin by making them sensible of your superiority. 
No concession must be granted but in return for something 
equivalent, and not until it has been repeatedly requested ; 
and even then it must be yielded with apparent reluctance. 
Should you stand in need of any thing which they can con- 
strue into a favour, you may be assured, that unless through 



of Tunis, p. 89-92. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 213 



fear, interest, or some other base motive, your wishes will 
not be regarded by either prince or subject ; for the same 
want of faith, honour, gratitude, and generous spirit, begin- 
ning at the fountainhead, runs through the whole polluted 
stream. 

As an example of the spirit which prevails at Tunis, it may 
be mentioned, that the late bey reserved to himself the priv- 
ilege of driving in a carriage with four wheels ; and, there- 
fore, all others, natives as well as foreigners, were obliged to 
satisfy themselves with a vehicle having only two. But at 
length he was smitten with the desire of riding in a gig ; and 
observing that the American consul had a very handsome 
one, he sent for it with no other apology than that " he 
needed it," and the owner might find another. It may not be 
necessary to remark, that he did not get it. On a second 
occasion, his excellency remarked that a wine-merchant had 
a very fine mule, which he thought much too good for an 
individual in his line of life. He therefore demanded it, as a 
very suitable animal for the head of the government to give 
away in the shape of a present ; and in this simple manner 
he contrived to maintain the state of a sovereign without 
encroaching upon the funds of the public exchequer.* 

Revenge is considered one of the noble qualities of a Moor. 
He retains long the remembrance of an injury, and will ex- 
ert all the cunning and deceit of his character to insnare his 
enemy and satiate his resentment. He will even so far dis- 
guise his feelings as to show stronger marks of friendship, 
until, having lulled suspicion and awakened confidence, he 
can fall at unawares upon his unsuspecting foe. Fighting 
this people with their own weapons is one mode of conquest, 
both in political and in mercantile concerns, which has been 
occasionally recommended ; and it has been seriously argued, 
that in order to deal with them to advantage, you must op- 
pose intrigue to intrigue, and injustice to injustice, otherwise 
they will be sure to overcome you. But Mr. M'Gill, who 
was professionally engaged in mercantile pursuits at Tunis, 
justly remarks, that, though this maxim has been much fol- 
lowed, honesty is after all the best policy ; and that a man on 
his guard against their weak arts will render them entirely 
futile by a systematic determination to act with uniform in- 



* Account of Tunis, p. 92. 



314 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 

tegrity himself, and never in any degree to submit to imposi- 
tion from them.* 

From the statements already made, we are prepared to hear 
that the most sordid ideas pervade all ranks of the Moorish 
population. Among the lower class it is curious to observe 
that, when called upon to pay their dues to the prince, they 
uniformly plead inability, and make use of every protestation 
to support their defence. The taxgatherer, accustomed to 
this kind of apology, immediately puts the recusant under the 
bastinado ; upon which he cries out at the highest pitch of 
his voice that he will pay all he owes, and, generally, before 
rising from the ground, draws forth his bag and satisfies the 
collector. On an occasion of this kind, a gentleman who 
stood by inquired of the man who had endured this cruel 
punishment, why he did not pay at once? "What!" he 
replied, " pay my taxes without being bastinadoed ! No I 
no !" Such conduct, it is suggested, may arise not only 
from great ignorance and love of money, which makes them 
hope to the last moment that they will escape, but also from 
the rapacious nature of the government, which renders it 
dangerous to appear rich.f 

The population of the regency was formerly estimated at 
five millions — a mere conjecture, however, as no census 
takes place, and no authentic records are kept. It is admitted 
that the great plague and famine in 1805 cut off nearly one 
half of their numbers — a statement which, though not a little 
exaggerated, coincides accurately enough with the present 
aspect of the country, and the probable amount of the inhab- 
itants. The great majority, of course, are Moors and Arabs ; 
the Turks are not thought to exceed seven thousand ; the 
Christians are not more numerous ; and the Jews are limited 
by the latest calculation to a hundred thousand. The native 
Hebrews are distinguished from Mohammedans by their 
dress, not being allowed to wear the red cap under the tur- 
ban ; in their case it must be black, or dark-blue. They are 
sometimes very ill treated, but are not liable to greater exac- 
tions than the true believers. There are a Roman Catholic 
church and convent in Tunis, besides a chapel of the same 
communion in the French consulate. The number of mem- 
bers does not exceed six hundred, and they are all under the 



* Account of Tunis, p. 40. 



t Ibid., p. 41. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 215 



superintendence of a Capuchin friar. The Protestants are 
still fewer. They consisted, at no distant period, of the 
family of the English vice-consul, those of the Danish, Swe- 
dish, and American consuls, and a few other individuals not 
attached to the public service. Some of them received the 
sacrament in the Greek church, and availed themselves of 
the services of the priests for marriages, baptisms, and buri- 
als. The Greeks amount to about two hundred, of whom 
forty are British subjects, and a hundred and sixty belong to 
the Ottoman government; the whole, however, viewed as 
Christians, are under the protection of the English flag. 

The revenue of Tunis has been stated at twenty-four mill- 
ions of piasters, or rather more than a million and a half of 
English money. But at present the public income from reg- 
ular sources is supposed not to exceed one fourth part of the 
sum just named. The ways and means on which the bey 
principally relies are the tithes upon the cultivation of oil, 
corn, and other products of the land ; the annual returns from 
his own grounds ; the sale of permits for the exportation 
of oil and grain, and for the importation of wine and spirits ; 
the customs, which are farmed every year to the highest bid- 
der ; various monopolies, which are likewise farmed ; the 
sale of places under government ; a taxation on the Jews ; 
and, finally, a traffic in slaves. To these may be added oc- 
casional extortions from his rich subjects, the appropriation 
of their wealth when they die, and his profits in trade, which, 
as he is an extensive speculator in most kinds of merchan- 
dise, may be rated at a considerable amount. It is not im- 
agined, however, that his highness is rich, for the expenses 
of his administration have at least equalled the revenue. His 
disputes with Algiers have given rise to large outlays, as 
well in building gunboats as in maintaining a standing army 
— circumstances which will be mentioned particularly here- 
after. 

Under the head of revenue, the reader is naturally reminded 
of the remark made by Dr. Shaw, that, as the making of 
wine has been absolutely prohibited, the duty upon foreign 
growths has increased to the sum of 50,000 dollars, it being 
computed that the merchants import every year upward of 
4,000 hogsheads — a quantity, says he, very surprising indeed, 
were we not at the same time to consider the great number 



216 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES 



of Turks and Moors who drink here to excess, beyond the 

practice, perhaps, of any other nation.* 

An anecdote recorded by Mr. M'Gill, while it rather con- 
firms the charge here brought against the Tunisians, reflects 
so much credit on the memory of the late bey, that it must 
not be omitted. Hamooda, it is confessed, was much ad- 
dicted to the use of wine ; and his palace had more the ap- 
pearance of being occupied by a northern than by an orien- 
tal prince. His slaves, who had not the same injunctions 
imposed on them by their religion, indulged him in his ex- 
cesses, and became his companions in riot and revelry. 
Great outrages were committed by them when under the 
influence of strong drink ; but a circumstance which happened 
during one of his debauches, about ten years after he came 
to the throne, had ever afterward a salutary effect on his 
conduct. One night as they were over their cups, a noise 
was heard in the courtyard below. The bey impatiently 
demanded the occasion of it ; and finding that it proceeded 
from some people belonging to the Dey of Algiers, who were 
also making merry, he ordered his prime minister, Mustapha, 
to have them immediately strangled. This prudent counsel- 
lor, whose reputation for wisdom still survives in Tunis, re- 
ceived the command, but contented himself with putting the 
offenders in prison, and telling his master that his instruc- 
tions had been obeyed. Next morning, when the effects of 
his intemperance had subsided, his highness inquired about 
the Algerines. Mustapha reminded him of the ord^r which 
he had given the preceding night. Hamooda, almost frantic 
with vexation and alarm, asked if it was executed. The 
other replied in the negative, and was heartily thanked by the 
bey, who now saw in a very strong light the cruelty and 
injustice of the sentence which he had pronounced. From 
that moment he never tasted wine nor any species of intox- 
icating liquor. f 

The state of Tunis, it is universally acknowledged, is 
much more interesting for what it once was, than for its 
modern towns, institutions, or manners. As the countrv in 
which Carthage stood, and wherein were fought the battles 
which decided the fate of the greatest nations of antiquity, 

* Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 172. 
i Account of Tunis, p. 20. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES* 21? 



it must for ever possess an importance that hardly any degree 
of civilization can supersede. This famous town was built 
upon an eminence which commands a most extensive view* 
both towards the land and the water, and appears to have oc^ 
cupied a large space of ground. From an estimate made by 
Br. Shaw on the spot, he concluded that the whole peninsula 
was about thirty miles round, and that the city may have 
covered nearly one half of its area. On the southeastern 
side, the sea has encroached so much upon the shore, that 
for the space of about three furlongs in length and half a fur^ 
long or more in breadth, the ruins lie entirely under water. 
In rowing along the beach, the common sewers are frequent^ 
ly discovered ; which, being well built and cemented togeth- 
er, the great lapse of time has not been able to impair. The 
cisterns are other structures which have suffered very little ; 
for besides those belonging to private houses, which are nu- 
merous, there are two sets which, it is evident from their 
magnitude, must have been the property of the public. The 
larger of these formed the grand reservoir, which received 
the water conveyed by the celebrated aqueduct, and consist- 4 
ed of moie than twenty contiguous cisterns, each of them at 
least 100 feet long and thirty broad. The smaller establish- 
ment is in a higher situation, near the byrsa or castle, and 
seems contrived to collect the rain which fell upon the top of 
it, as also upon some adjacent pavements made for that pur- 
pose. This reservoir, it is said, might be repaired at a small 
expense ; the earthen pipes, through which the water was 
conducted from the roof, requiring only to be cleansed and 
opened.* 

Besides these, adds the traveller just quoted, there are no 
tokens left to us of the grandeur and magnificence of this fa- 
mous place. We meet with no triumphal arches or sumptu- 
ous pieces of architecture ; here are no granite pillars or cu- 
rious entablatures ; but the broken walls and structures that 
remain are either built in the Gothic taste, or according to 
that of the later inhabitants. These remarks, however, ap- 
oly only to such of the ruins as respect the more modern 
buildings : for it has been already mentioned, that the re* 
mains of columns, displaying all the beauty of the Corinthiaft 
©rder 5 are to be found scattered over the contiguous plain 5 



* Travels in Barbary, vol. L, p. 164.. 
T 



218 



TUNIS AND ITS rEPENDANCES> 



The remains of the grand aqueduct may still be traced 
from the larger reservoir as far as Zowan, and from thence 
to Zunghar, a distance of at least fifty miles. It has been a 
work of extraordinary labour and expense ; and that portion 
of it in particular which runs along the peninsula, was ele- 
gantly built with hewn stone. At Arriana, a little village 
two miles to the northward of Tunis, is seen a long range of 
arches, all of them entire, seventy feet high, supported by 
columns sixteen feet square. The channel that conveyed 
the water lies upon these arches, being high and broad 
enough for a person of an ordinary size to walk in. It is 
vaulted above, and plastered in the inside with a strong ce- 
ment ; which, by the stream running through it, is discoloured 
to the height of about three feet. This sufficiently shows 
the capacity of the channel ; bat as there are several inter- 
ruptions in the aqueduct, sometimes to the extent of three or 
four miles together, it was found impossible to determine the 
velocity or angle of descent, so as to ascertain the quantity 
of water that might be every day conveyed through it to Car- 
thage. Both at Zowan and Zunghar there was a temple 
erected over the respective fountains whence this copious 
supply of one of the indispensable necessaries of life was ob- 
tained. The structure at the latter hamlet appears, from 
the ornaments still remaining, to have been of the Corinthian 
order, where there is a beautiful dome, adorned with three 
niches, placed immediately over the spring. These, it is 
more than probable, were intended to receive certain statues, 
representing the gods who were imagined to preside over 
running streams or living waters. 

Mr. M'Gill observes, that the entire space between Tunis 
and Cape Carthage is strewed over with antiquities. He 
mentions, at the same time, that the greater cisterns are now 
become the habitation of those miserable Bedouins who re- 
main in this part of the country. Near the smaller ones, 
towards the sea, are the ruins of an immense temple, of 
which nothing is now left but rubbish, if we except the sub- 
terranean passages, which, though nearly filled up by the 
earth that has been thrown into them by the rains of many 
centuries, may yet be followed under ground to a great ex- 
tent. The whole of the site of ancient Carthage, indeed, is 
occupied by similar excavations — denoting that one town has 
been built on the scattered fragments of another much more 



TUNIS AND ITS DEFENDANCES. 219 



magnificent. A short while ago an edifice was discovered, 
consisting of several apartments, in a tolerably perfect state, 
and having good paintings on the roof of one of the rooms. 
The adjoining fields, too, are sprinkled with small pieces of 
porphyry and verd-antique, about half an inch thick and two 
or three square, which formed a sort of incrustation on the 
walls. The lofty arches seem to have been lined with rude 
mosaic-work, composed in some parts of marble, in others of 
; more varied materials. On Mount Gamart, westward of the 
J cape, are evident marks of an ancient catacomb, the dimen- 
sions of which must have been considerable ; but no one 
dares to enter it, though it is open in different places. Many 
medals, chiefly Roman, are found in every district, and nu- 
merous curiously-engraved stones ; but the Christians at 
Tunis are such speculators in these things, that, unless at a 
great price, none can be procured, even though of small 
merit.* 

Such are the scanty remnants of a city, the population of 
which, before the first Punic war, amounted to 700,000, and 
which, when taken by Scipio, could not be destroyed by fire 
in less than seventeen days. It revived from its ashes, as 
we have already remarked, and had again become, in the 
days of Strabo, one of the largest towns in Africa. Of its 
condition during the fourth and fifth centuries, Gibbon ob- 
serves, that though it might yield to the royal prerogatives of 
Constantinople, and perhaps to the trade of Alexandria, or 
the splendour of Antioch, it still maintained the second rank 
in the West, as the Rome of the African world. "That 
wealthy and powerful metropolis displayed, in a dependant 
condition, the image of a flourishing republic. Carthage 
contained the manufactures, the arms, and the treasuries of 
the six provinces. A regular subordination of civil honours 
gradually ascended, from the procurators of the streets and 
quarters of the city to the tribunal of the supreme magistrate ; 
who, with the title of proconsul, represented the state and dig- 
nity of a consul of ancient Rome. Schools and gymnasia were 
instituted for the education of the African youth ; and the lib- 
eral arts and manners, grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, were 
' publicly taught in the Greek and Latin languages. The 
buildings of Carthage were uniform and magnificent. A 



* Account of Tunis, p, 7L 



220 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



shady grove was planted in the midst of the capital ; the new 
port, a secure and capacious harbour, was subservient to the 
commercial industry of citizens and strangers ; and the 
splendid games of the circus and the theatre were exhibited 
almost in the presence of the barbarians."* The reputation 
of the Carthaginians was not equal to that of their country, 
and the reproach of Punic faith still adhered to their incon- 
stant and subtle character. 

We have elsewhere alluded to the ravages of the Vandals 
in the fifth century, and the overthrow inflicted by the Sara- 
cens in the seventh, under their enthusiastic leaders. Bui 
it should seem, that in neither of these cases was the de- 
struction entire ; for, in the beginning of the ninth century, 
considerable remains still existed of its beauty and strength. 
Edrisi, however, describes its appearance in the twelfth age 
as nothing more than a scene of splendid ruins. "There 
are," says he, " still to be seen remarkable vestiges of Ro- 
man buildings ; for instance, the theatre, which has not its 
equal in the world. This edifice is of a circular form, and is 
composed of about fifty arches, yet remaining. Each of 
these arches embraces a space of about twenty-three feet. 
Between every two arches is a pillar of equal magnitude, the 
two pilasters of which are about three feet four inches in 
breadth. Above each of them rise five rows of arches, one 
over the other, of similar form and dimensions, constructed of 
stone of incomparable fineness. On the top of each arch 
was a frieze, on which are seen divers figures and curious 
representations of men, animals, and ships, sculptured with 
exquisite art. In general, it may be said, that the other 
ruins, and the finest edifices of this description, are nothing 
in comparison with the one now delineated." 

He next proceeds to mention the cisterns and aqueduct, 
the latter of which, he remarks, " extended along an infinite 
number of bridges, where the water flowed in an equal and 
regular manner. These bridges are composed of arches, 
which are low or of moderate height in the plain, but of 
great elevation in the valleys and hollows. In the present 
day it is quite dry, having ceased to flow, in consequence of 
the depopulation of Carthage, and because, from the time of 
the fall of the city till now, there has been constant excava* 



* Decline, &c, chap, xxxiji. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. ' 221 



tkm among its ruins, and even under the foundations of its 
ancient edifices. Marbles have been discovered there of so 
many different species, that it would be impossible to de- 
scribe them. An eyewitness reports, that he saw taken out 
blocks thirty feet high, and sixty-three inches in diameter. 
Nor have these spoliations been yet discontinued. The 
marbles are transported far away to all countries ; and no- 
body leaves Carthage without carrying off considerable quan- 
tities, either by vessels or by other means : it is a notorious 
fact. Sometimes marble columns have been found thirty feet 
in circumference."* 

The circumstances now detailed by the Arabian geogra- 
pher will account, in some measure, for the absence of such 
splendid relics and gorgeous ornament, as might be expected 
amid the ruins of the Carthaginian capital. The destructive 
agency of time, and the hands of the ignorant or the covetous, 
have produced the poverty of which Dr. Shaw complains, and 
. which every succeeding year must be found to increase. In 
! the beginning of the sixteenth century, accordingly, the sec- 
ond metropolis of the West was represented by a mosque, a 
college without students, twenty or thirty shops, and the huts 
of 500 peasants, who, in their abject poverty, displayed the 
arrogance of the Punic senators. Even that paltry village 
was swept away by the Spaniards whom Charles V. had sta- 
ll tioned in the fortress of the Goletta. At this epoch we 
I therefore may say that even the ruins of Carthage have 
f perished, t 

Chateaubriand relates, that when he cast anchor opposite 
; the debris of this ancient city, he looked at them, but was 
I unable to distinguish what they could be. He perceived a 
I few Moorish huts, a Mohammedan hermitage at the point of 
i a projecting cape, sheep browsing among ruins — " ruins, so 
I far from being striking, that I could scarcely distinguish 
them from the ground on which they lay."£ 

The large space devoted to the capital, and to the interest- 
ing remains in its neighbourhood, compels us to restric 

* This passage, translated from the original Arabic by M. 
I Amedee Jaubert, was inserted in the Jour. Asiatique for May 
I 1828 —See Modern Traveller, vol. i., p. 237. 

f Decline and Fall, &c, chap. liL 

t Travels, vol. ii., p. 286. 

T % 



222 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



within narrower bounds our description of the other cities. 
It may be observed in the outset, that this kingdom is not 
divided into provinces and governed by viceroys like that of 
Algiers, but the whole is under the immediate inspection of 
the bey himself, who collects the tribute in person. For 
this purpose he visits, with a flying camp, once every year, 
the principal parts of it — traversing in the summer season 
the fertile country in the neighbourhood of Keff and Beja, 
and in the winter the several districts between Kairwan and 
the Jerid. These two circuits very nearly correspond with 
the Zeugitania and the Byzacium of the ancients ; the for- 
mer, or summer-circuit, comprehends all the land that lies 
to the northward of the Gulf of Hammamet, while the latter, 
or winter-circuit, embraces the section which extends south- 
ward from the same parallel. 

Beginning with the western part of Zeugitania, our atten- 
tion is drawn to a magnificent cape, supposed to be the spot 
where Scipio landed in his first African expedition. A few 
miles to the southward is the town of Bizerta, pleasantly situ- 
ated on a canal between an extensive lake and the sea. It 
is about a mile in circumference, and defended by several 
fortresses ; but its chief importance, in a geographical point 
of view, arises from the supposition that it is the Hippo Zari^ 
tus of ancient authors. 

The site of Utica, so famous for the opposition made by its 
inhabitants to the cause of Caesar, and for the death of the 
republican Cato, can no longer be determined. The Bagra- 
da, the river on which it stood, having changed its course, 
and large accessions being made to the land by depositions 
from its current, it is now a matter of conjecture where the 
ruins of a city so intimately connected with the history of Af- 
rica are to be sought. 

Proceeding eastward from Tunis, the traveller, at the dis- 
tance of six miles, reaches the town of Rhades, celebrated as 
the place where Regulus defeated the Carthaginians. About 
a league farther on, in the same direction, is Hamrnam Leif, 
named from the hot-baths with which it abounds. Near this 
position is the village of Solyman, inhabited by Andalusian 
Moors, who, being more civilized than their African brethren, 
are very courteous to Christians : they still retain the Spanish 
language, Passing Moraisah and Sidi Doud, we come to 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 223 



Lowharcah, the Aquilaria of Pliny, where Curio landed those 
troops which were afterward cut in pieces by Sabura. It 
presents various fragments of architecture, but none worthy 
of particular notice. In this vicinity Cape Bon rears its prom- 
inent ridge, from which, it is said, the mountains of Sicily 
may be seen in clear weather. Fifteen miles from this cape 
is Clybea, the Kalibia of the Latins, which is now represented 
by a miserable knot of hovels. Ghurba, in former times Co- 
rubis, is seven leagues distant from the village just described. 
It was once a considerable place ; though, at present, the 
ruins of a large aqueduct, with the cisterns that received the 
water, are the only antiquities. Nabal, which next succeeds, 
holds the place of Neapolis, the wrecks of which prove it to 
have been a considerable city, even exclusive of that part of 
it long ago swallowed up by the sea. From this point, a 
journey of two leagues brings the visiter to Hammamet, or 
the Dwelling of Wild Pigeons, which Leo Africanus informs 
us was built about his own time. The pillars, blocks of 
marble, and inscriptions, with some few other tokens of an- 
tiquity, are understood to have been brought from the neigh- 
bouring ruins of Cassir Aseite, the Civitas Siagitana of clas- 
sical authors. In a contiguous plain is a building called the 
Manarah, a large mausoleum, nearly twenty yards in diame- 
ter, of a cylindrical form, with a vault underneath it. Several 
small altars — conjectured by the Moors to have been so 
many manara, or lamps displayed for the direction of marin- 
ers — are placed upon the cornice. This position marks the 
boundary, on the seacoast, between the summer and winter 
circuits.* 

The towns in the interior of the same division are not un- 
worthy of notice. Returning to the western border, we meet 
with Beja or Bay-Jah, supposed to be the Vacca of Sallust, 
and the Oppidum Vagense of Pliny. It is still a place of 
considerable trade — the chief mart, indeed, of the whole 
kingdom, particularly for corn, by the price of which all com- 
modities are estimated. In the plain of Busdera, on the 
banks of the Mejerdah, a public fair is held every summer, 

* Shaw, vol. i., p. 181. The altars bear the following in? 
scription :— 

L. ^Emilio Africano Avunculo 
c. suellio pontaro patrueli 
Vitellio Quarto Pate*. 



224 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



which is frequented by the most distant Arabian tribes, who 
resort thither with their flocks, their manufactures, and their 
families. Near the river just mentioned is Tuburbo, a village 
inhabited by Spanish Moors. In this neighbourhood, a late 
bey planted a great variety of fruit-trees, which were ranged 
in so particular a manner that each species was confined to 
one grove, and thereby removed from the influence of every 
other. Thus, the orange-trees were all placed by themselves, 
without the admission of the lime or the citron ; and where 
the pear or the apple was gathered, there was no encourage- 
ment to look for the peach or apricot. The traveller next 
arrives at Tuckaaber and Tubersoke, which present nothing 
remarkable beyond a few inscriptions that have now become 
nearly unintelligible. Passing the latter of these hamlets we 
come to Lorbus ; and at an equal distance from both is the 
ancient Musti, now called Abdel Abbus, where are the re- 
mains of a beautiful triumphal arch. Upon a stone which 
may have formerly belonged to it, is the following dedi- 
cation : — 

Invictissimo Felicissimoque Imperatori 

AUGUSTO C^ESARI ORBIS PaCATORI 

Musticensium D. D. 

KefF, known as the Sicca Veneria of Roman authors, sit- 
uated about seventy miles from Tunis, is esteemed, in point 
of riches and strength, the third town in the kingdom. Du- 
ring the civil war already recorded, the greatest part of the 
citadel was blown up ; but it has been rebuilt on an improved 
planj which contributes at once to its beauty and efficiency. 
In levelling an adjacent mount, to find materials for this for- 
tress, the workmen brought to light an entire statue of Venus, 
which, however, was no sooner seen than it was broken to 
pieces by these barbarians. This discovery is regarded as at 
once authorizing and illustrating the epithet of Veneria, by 
which the town is distinguished. There was also dug up, at 
the same time, an equestrian statue, dedicated to Marcus 
Antoninus Rufus, which suffered the fate of the other. KefF, 
as the name imports, stands upon the declivity of a hill, with 
a plentiful spring of water near the centre of it. The follow* 
ing inscription can still be read on a public building . 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 225 



VlCTORI 

conturioni 
Legionario 
Ex Equite 

Romano 
Ob Munifi 
Centiam Ordo 

SlCCENSIUM 

. . . Civi 
•\ Et Condecurioni 

D. D. P. P. 

Tubersoke, about seven leagues south from Tunis, is built 
in the form of a crescent between two ridges of a very verdant 
mountain, and presents, as the sole remains of antiquity, a 
large pair of stag's horns, well delineated in low-relief, on the 
gate of an extensive edifice. To Zowan, the only other 
town in this direction, we have already alluded, as one of the 
sources whence water was supplied to Carthage. At the 
present day its reputation is confined to the dying of scarlet 
caps and the bleaching of linen, great quantities of both being 
daily brought thither from Tunis and Susa.* 

In Byzacium, or the winter-circuit, there are still towns 
which, either from their ancient importance, or the conspicu- 
ous place they hold in modern maps, are worthy of a brief 
notice. Herkla, the Heraclea of the Lower Empire, the Jus* 
tiniana of the middle ages, and the Adrumetum of remoter 
antiquity, stands on the Gulf of Hammamet. Susa, a few 
miles farther to the southeast, possesses some notoriety as 
a market for oil and fine linen, and may be reckoned one of 
the most considerable cities of which the Tunisians can boast. 
Its architectural remains, though not splendid, prove that it 
must have been a place of distinction, even as early as the 
days of Caesar. Passing Sahaleel and Monasteer, we arrive 
at Lempta, the Leptis Parva of Hirtius and Lucan ; of which, 
however, nothing now is seen except the ruins of a castle 
and some traces of its cothon or harbour. Agar and Demass, 
mentioned by the annalist of Caesar's campaigns, still retain 
sufficient indications of strength to explain the value which 
was attached to their occupation by that master in the art of 
war. Mahedia is situated upon a peninsula five miles to the 
south of the latter of these towns, and appears to have been 



* Shaw, vol. i., p. 191 ? 



226 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



a place of great consequence. Leo Africanus says it wai 
built by Mahdi, the first patriarch of Kairwan, and therefore 
assumed his name ; but Dr. Shaw remarks, there is some- 
thing too regular in several of the remaining capitals, entab- 
latures, and other pieces of the ancient masonry, even de- 
faced as they now appear, to warrant the opinion that the 
founder of them was an Arab.* 

At Sailecto, the Sublecte of the middle ages, are the ruins 
of a castle little inferior in extent to the Tower of London, 
erected apparently for the protection of a small port which 
lies below it. Elalia, besides the ordinary remains of old 
towns, displays those of several cisterns, with large paved 
areas built over them, meant to receive the rain-water by 
which they were periodically replenished. These, and sim- 
ilar structures in this part of the country, are ascribed to 
the Sultan Ben-Aglib, a prince who, for his public spirit and 
warlike exploits, is justly held in the greatest veneration. 
Advancing along the shore, we observe Sbea, Ca-poudia, 
and the two islands of Karkenna, the Cerrina and the Corini- 
tis of the old geographers. Here it is usual to fix the com- 
mencement of the Lesser Syrtis ; from which point to the 
Island of Jerba, there is a succession of flat islets and sand- 
banks, whence the inhabitants derive much advantage in their 
simple fisheries. Sfax or Sfakus, a thriving village, carries 
us on to Thainee and Maharess, at the latter of which sta- 
tions are the relics of a fortress. Then follow on the line of 
the coast Ellamait, Suli Midthil, and Woodlif. Three leagues 
from this last is Cabes, the Epichus of Scylax and the Ta- 
cape of other ancient geographers, where Dr. Shaw was struck 
with the appearance of a heap of ruins, among which were 
some beautiful granite pillars. They were all of them square, 
and twelve feet long ; and, on the whole, were such as he 
had not seen in any other part of Africa. A walk of three 
miles conducts the stranger to the little village of Tobulba, 
whence, in a clear atmosphere, may be descried the Island 
of Jerba, the southern boundary of the Tunisian state. t 

In regard to some of the towns now mentioned, M. Bla= 

* El Mahdia oppidum nostris fere temporibus a Mahdi primo 
Cairoan pontifice conditum. Descriptio Africae, p. 573. Shaw, 
vol. i., p. 208. 

f Travels in Barbary, vol i., p. 216, 



TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 227 



qui£re supplies a few notices worthy of being inserted. He 
tells us, for example, that the population of Susa amounts to 
8,000 or 10,000 ; that the country around is extremely beau- 
tiful and well cultivated ; and that thirty miles in the interior 
there is a colossal amphitheatre in a high siate of preserva- 
tion. Gabes, or, as he writes it, Cabes, contains at least 
30,000 souls, and the mountains in its vicinity are famous 
for the warlike disposition of the inhabitants. It is said that 
the sheik of this province can bring into the field 20,000 
cavalry ; horses being very numerous and of a superior qual- 
ity. Of the Island of Jerba, the Meninx of Pliny, he remarks, 
that it is only separated from the continent by a narrow chan- 
nel, not navigable. The natives, exceeding 30,000 in num- 
ber, are considered by far the most industrious and well- 
disposed under his highness' government. Their manufac- 
tures of shawls, linen, and woollen cloths, have prospered un- 
commonly, and are generally esteemed the best in all Barbary.* 
In the inland parts of Byzacium, too, are some important 
places, of which we shall shortly mention the principal. At 
Kairwan, the ancient Cairoan, are several fragments of archi- 
tecture ; and the mosque, which is accounted the most mag- 
nificent in Northern Africa, is said to be supported by an 
almost incredible number of granite pillars — not fewer than 
500. But no inscriptions of any value were discovered ; and, 
considering the comparatively modern origin of the place, in 
connexion with the character of its founders, such literary 
indications were not to be expected. Jemme, called Tisdra 
in the time of Julius Caesar, is distinguished by the beautiful 
remains of a spacious amphitheatre, to which allusion has 
been already made, consisting originally of sixty-four rows 
of arches, and four rows of columns placed one above another. 
The highest series, which was probably an attic structure, is 
much dilapidated ; and Mohammed Bey, who, during the 
civil dissensions, used it as a fortress, blew up four of its 
arches from top to bottom. Viewed from the outside, noth- 
ing could appear mors entire or magnificent. As the elder 
Gordian was proclaimed emperor in this city, it is not im- 
probable, that in grantude to the place where he received the 
purple, he laid the foundation and defrayed the expense of the 
building. 



* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 182 



228 TUNIS AND ITS DEPENDANCES. 



But Sfaitla, formerly Sufetula, is the most remarkable 
town in Barbary for the extent and magnificence of its ruins. 
First, there is a splendid triumphal gateway of the Corinthian 
order, consisting of one large arch, with a smaller one on 
each side of it, having these few words of dedication remain- 
ing on the architrave : — 

Imp. Caesar Aug. .... 

Onin. .... 



suffetulentium .... 
> Hanc edificaverunt 
Et BD. P. P. 

At the end of a regular pavement, the visiter passes through 
a beautiful portico, built in the same style and manner as the 
triumphal arch, which conducts into a spacious court. Here 
are the ruins of three contiguous temples, of which the sev- 
eral roofs, porticoes, and facades, are indeed broken down ; 
but the rest of the fabric, with its respective columns, pedi-* 
inents, and entablatures, remains perfectly entire. 

Gilma, which has the area of a temple still remaining, is 
supposed to have been a great city. It stood six leagues to 
the eastward of Sufetula, and was known among Roman 
authors by the name of Oppidum Chilmanense. The town 
of Casareene, the Colonia Scillitana of former days, claims 
some attention for a triumphal arch, though it be more re- 
markable for the quantity and value of the materials than for 
the beauty or elegance of the design. On the top there is 
an attic structure, having certain Corinthian-like ornaments 
bestowed upon the entablature, while the pilasters themselves 
are entirely Gothic. At the interval of seven leagues, the 
traveller, proceeding towards the south and west, discovers 
the vestiges of Feriana, which is conjectured to be the Thala 
repeatedly mentioned by Sallust. Its boasted grandeur is 
now reduced to a few granite pillars, which, by some extraor- 
dinary chance, or unwonted forbearance of the Arabs, have 
been allowed to stand on their pedestals. Advancing in the 
same direction, the eye will detect in succession Gaffsa, an- 
other of the strong cities of Jugurtha, and Gorbata, which 
marks the edge of the Jerid, or dry country, belonging to the 
domains of the ancient Getulia. 



TUNIS AND ITS DEFENDANCES. 229 



In this neighbourhood there is a salt-water marsh, sixty 
miles long and about eighteen broad, usually denominated 
the " Lake of Marks," or Lowdeah, owing to a number of 
stakes placed at proper distances, to direct the caravans in 
their march over it. Without such assistance, says Dr. 
Shaw, travelling here would be both dangerous and difficult, 
as well from the variety of pits and quicksands that could 
not otherwise be avoided, as because the opposite shore has 
no other tokens to be known by, except some date-trees, 
which are not seen above sixteen miles at the most. Scat- 
tered over this desolate tract are numerous villages, the 
names of which have scarcely ever reached a European ear, 
and which are occupied by a class of Bedouins who divide 
their cares between their scanty flocks and the avocations 
of plunder, mutual hostility, and assassination. We travel, 
to use the words of the amusing author just quoted, " nearly 
thirty miles through a lonesome uncomfortable desert, the 
resort of cut-throats and robbers, where we saw the recent 
blood of a Turkish gentleman, who, with three of his ser- 
vants, had been murdered two days before by these miscre- 
ants. Here we were likewise ready to be attacked by five 
of the Harammees, who were mounted upon black horses, 
and clothed, to be the less discerned, with cloaks of the same 
colour. But, finding us prepared to receive them, they came 
up peaceably to us and gave us the salam. Through all this 
dreary space, we meet with neither herbage nor water till we 
arrive within a few miles of Elhamma."* 

We shall not attempt to delineate the various gradations 
of barbarism which distinguish these sons of the Desert, nor 
to define the limits of name and territory whereby the several 
tribes identify their members as descendants of the same 
patriarch. The Welled Seide and the Welled Mathie are 
in our eyes neither more nor less noble than the Beni Ya- 
goube, who enjoy the fertile lands of KefT, or than the sons 
of Sidi Boogannin, who pitch their tents near the mountains 
of Hydrah and Ellonleijah. These nomades may acknowl- 
edge the sovereignty of Tunis, and allow themselves to be 
included in the winter-circuit ; but it seems not probable that 
the bey, even with his flying camp, will deem it prudent to 
exact the yearly tribute, or to make an annual muster of the 



* Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 238. 



230 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



savage horsemen. Such neighbours, however remote, will 
for a long time prove the greatest bar to the introduction of 
European colonies, arts, and manners. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Regency of Algiers. 

Origin of the term Algiers — Importance attached to its History 
— Boundaries of the State — Appearance of the Town — Its 
Interior — Population — Fortifications— Narrow Streets— His- 
tory resumed — Charles V. resolves to attack Algiers — His 
Force — Preparations of Hassan Aga — Storm disables the 
Spaniards — Loss of Ships and Men — Sufferings of the Army 
— Scattered at Sea — Fortitude of the Emperor — These Hos- 
tilities had an earlier origin — Policy of Cardinal Ximenes — 
Success of his Measures — Moors revolt, and invite Barbaros- 
sa — Spaniards deprived of Oran — Expedition of Philip V. — 
Oran destroyed by an Earthquake — French attack Algiers 
under Beaulieu — And under Duquesne — The City and Batte- 
ries destroyed — The Dutch, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, and 
Russians, adopt different Measures — English make several 
efforts to reduce the Corsairs — Insults during the reign of 
George II. — Resolutions by Congress of Vienna — Expedition 
of Lord Exmouth — Attack on Algiers — Terms acceded to — 
Captives released — French Government offended — Expedi- 
tion under Bourmont — Account by Rozet — Present state of 
Algiers — Revenue— War between Algiers and Tunis — Bona 
— Tabarca — La Cala — Constantina — Antiquities — Mileu — 
Remains — Bujeya — Province of Titteri — Bleeda and Medea 
— Burgh Hamza — Auzea — Beni Mezzab — Province of Tlem- 
san — Capital — Arbaal — El Herba — Maliana — Aquae Calidae 
Colonia — Oran — Recent Histoiy — Inhabitants — Geeza— Ca- 
rastel — Mostagan — Jol, or Julia Csesarea — Tefessad — Sher- 
shell — Vicinity of Algiers — French Government — Attempt at 
Colonization — Difficulties— Favourable Climate and Soil — 
European Powers invited to co-operate — Late Publications 
on the Subject. 

The term Algiers literally signifies " the island," and was 
derived from the original construction of its harbour, one side 
of which was separated from the land. A variety of circum- 
stances have contributed to bestow great celebrity on this 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 231 



apital, some of which reflect as little honour on the policy 
of European states as on the character of its own rulers and 
the pursuits of its inhabitants. The extent of territory at- 
tached to its government, or claimed by its chiefs, possesses 
very small importance in the estimation of our politicians, 
who for centuries have been wont to confine their attention 
to the harbours only of that barbarian power, whose cruisers 
inflicted upon the trade of Christendom more damage than 
could have arisen from a protracted war between the greatest 
of her maritime nations. Late events, and more especially 
the recent conquest achieved by the arms Of France, have 
added immensely to the interest with which the history of 
this most warlike of the Barbary States has ever been re- 
garded on the northern shores of the Mediterranean ; mark- 
ing, it is to be hoped, a new era in the affairs of those Moor- 
ish oligarchies by whom the miserable natives have been long 
oppressed, and the civilization of the most refined portion of 
the world put to the blush. 

Following the best authorities, we may observe, that the 
kingdom of Algiers is bounded on the east by the river Zaine, 
which divides it from Tunis ; on the west by the Mountains 
of Trara ; on the south by the Sahara, or Great Desert ; and 
on the north by the Mediterranean. The length is computed 
at 480 miles, though Sanson, who probably followed the line 
of the coast, makes it not less than 900 — an estimate which 
exceeds the truth more than 100 leagues. The breadth va- 
ries considerably at different places, the narrowest section, 
from the sea to the Atlas range, being about forty, while the 
broadest amounts to 150 miles. Pananti, one of the latest 
writers on the subject, assigns to it above 600 miles from 
west to east, and 180 from the northern shore to the Coun- 
try of Dates, or Blaid el Jerid. The regency is divided into 
four provinces — Algiers, Constantina, Titteri, and Mascara, 
or Tfemsan ; the first being governed by the dey in person, 
while the others are committed to the administration of cer- 
tain beys, his lieutenants. 

The territory of Algiers, with the exception of the parts 
bordering on the Desert, is less sandy and more fertile than 
that of Tunis. Desfontaines remarks, in his Flora Atlantica, 
that he found the climate more temperate, the mountains 
higher and more numerous, the rains more abundant, the 
springs and streams more frequent, the vegetation mors 



232 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



active and diversified. This improvement in point of atmo- 
spherical properties, and the fruitfulness which usually attends 
them, may be ascribed to the great elevation of the ridge that 
intersects this part of the African continent ; the summits of 
which, frequently covered with snow, arrest the progress of 
the clouds and condense them into rain. 

The city, which gives its name to the whole kingdom, rises 
in the form of an amphitheatre at the extremity of a fortified 
anchoring-ground. The tops of the houses, says Joseph 
Pitts, in his simple manner, " are all over white, being flat, 
and covered with lime and sand, as floors. The upper part 
of the town is not so broad as the lower part, and, therefore, 
at sea it looks just like the topsail of a ship. It is a very 
strong place, and well fortified with castles and guns. There 
are seven castles without the walls, and two tiers of guns in 
most of them. But in the greatest castle, which is on the 
mole without the gate, there are three tiers of guns, many 
of them of an extraordinary length, carrying fifty, sixty, yea 
eighty pound shot. Besides all these castles, there is at the 
higher end of the town, within the walls, another castle with 
many guns. And, moreover, on many places towards the 
sea are great guns planted. Algiers is well walled, and sur- 
rounded with a great trench. It hath five gates, and some 
of these have two, some three, other gates within them, and 
some of them plated all over with thick iron. So that it is 
made strong and convenient for being what it is — a nest of 
pirates."* 

The annexed view is taken from the seashore, a little to 
the south of the city, and represents the wall which encom- 
passes the town, together with the port, the mole, and cer- 
tain marine defences. 

Perhaps the appearance, of this singular place, when viewed 
from the sea, is still more striking. The white buildings 
rising in successive terraces have an imposing effect ; while 
the numerous country-mansions scattered over a circle of 
hills, amid groves of olive, citron, and banana -trees, present a 
peaceful and rural landscape very opposite in its character to 
that of a nation of pirates. But on entering the city the 
charm entirely dissolves. The streets are so extremely nar- 

* A True and Faithful Account of the Religion and Manners 
of the Mohammedans, pp. 7, 8. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 235 



row that in some of them three persons can scarcely walk 
abreast. This strange style of building is adopted on ac- 
count of its affording a better shade from the rays of the sun, 
and more protection in case of earthquakes, by one of which 
Algiers suffered severely in 1717. The pathway being con- 
cave, and rising on each side, the greatest inconvenience re- 
sults both to men and animals in passing through the town ; 
and, accordingly, when you meet a person on horseback, you 
are obliged to stand close by the houses to escape from being 
trampled under foot. 

There are nine great mosques and fifty smaller ones within 
the walls ; three principal schools, and several bazaars. Its 
finest public buildings are those of the five cassarias, which 
serve as barracks for the soldiery. The dey's palace has two 
fine courts, surrounded with spacious galleries, surmounted by 
two rows of marble columns ; its internal ornaments consist 
chiefly of mirrors, clocks, and carpets. There are sundry 
taverns kept in the city by Christian slaves, which are often 
frequented even by the Turks and Moors. The population 
has been variously estimated, on the authority of different 
writers, who must have formed their estimates on very vague 
grounds. Salame thinks there are 20,000 houses, and that 
the circuit of the walls is not less than four miles, thereby 
affording a basis on which we might raise an exaggerated 
computation as to the number of inhabitants. Shaw, who 
reduces the extent of the city to the circumference of a mile 
and a half, relates, that it is supposed to contain about 2,000 
Christian slaves, 15,000 Jews, and 100,000 Mohammedans.* 

It is observed by Pananti, that though there are taverns in 
Algiers, there is no convenience in them for sleeping; so 
that those who enter it from the country are obliged to lodge 
with some friend, while European merchants hire apartments 
in the houses of Jews. The immediate vicinity of the town, 
he remarks, is understood to contain about twenty thousand 
vineyards and gardens ; the beauty of these environs being 
in no respect inferior to that of Richmond, Chantilly, or 
Fiesole. Its effect, however, is much lessened when we re- 
flect on the people into whose possession so fine a country 
has falien. The landscape is truly delightful if viewed only 

* Pananti, Narrative of a Residence in Algiers, p. 114, 
Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 33. 



236 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



with a passing and rapid glance ; but when the eye rests 
upon it, the barrenness and aridity of many spots are dis- 
closed, showing the contempt of its barbarous inhabitants for 
agriculture, the place of which they endeavour to supply by 
dedicating themselves to war and plunder.* 

When Dr. Shaw, about a hundred years ago, resided at 
Algiers, the walls were weak and of little defence, unless 
where they were farther secured by some additional fortifica- 
tion. The port, we may subjoin on the same authority, is of 
an oblong figure, 130 fathoms in length and eighty broad. 
The Round Castle at the mouth of the harbour, built by the 
Spaniards when they were masters of the island, and the two 
large batteries, were said to be bomb-proof, and had each of 
them their lower embrasures furnished with thirty-six pound- 
ers. The guns were of brass, and their carriages and other 
appendages in good order. The battery of the Mole Gate, 
upon the eastern angle of the city, was mounted with several 
long pieces of ordnance, one of which had seven cylinders 
three inches in diameter. Half a furlong to the southwest 
of the harbour was the battery of the Fishers' Gate, which, 
consisting of a double row of cannon, commanded the en- 
trance into the port and the roadstead before it. But none 
of these fortifications were assisted either with mines or ad- 
vanced works ; and as the soldiers whose duty it was to de- 
fend them could not be brought to a course of regular disci- 
pline, a few resolute battalions, protected by a small fleet, 
would have found little difficulty in reducing the whole and 
expelling the garrisons. f 

The descriptions given by Pitts and Shaw, early in the 
last century, are confirmed by the actual condition of the 
place when attacked by the French and English. Salame, 
who in 1816 attended the British admiral as interpreter, and 
who was allowed to visit the capital in person, inserts in his 
narrative the following details : — " On the north side, about a 
mile from the town, there is a small castle and several bat- 
teries, the last of which is joined to the walls of the city. In 
this quarter they do not fear any thing, because there is not 
water enough for anchorage nor for landing. From this wall 
to the mole there are several batteries more, because this de- 

* Narrative, &c, p. 115. 

f Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 84. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 237 



fence i9 erected in the centre of that part of the city which 
fronts the sea. On the north head • of the mole there is a 
semicircular battery of two tiers of forty-four guns, called the 
Lion's Battery, the fire of which bears on the north, on the 
east, and on the south. After this is another round one, of 
three tiers and of forty-eight cannons, in the middle of which 
there is built a tower or lighthouse ; and they call it the 
Lighthouse Battery. This is supported by another, a long 
one, still more strong, of three tiers, containing sixty-six 
guns, and called the Eastern Battery. This is flanked by 
four' more of two tiers, one joined to the other, which mount 
sixty guns, directed towards the southeast and the south. 
On the south head of the mole there are two large sixty-eight 
pounders, twenty feet long. Almost opposite, there are on 
the city-side two small batteries of four guns each ; but 
these are followed by a strong battery of twenty guns and a 
very ancient building situated upon two large arches. From 
this to the south wall of the city there are two- batteries 
more ; and from that to a distance of about a mile and a half 
south there are several other batteries and a large castle. 
These are their defences on the seaside ; but the rest of the 
works round the walls of the city, and the two castles situ- 
ated upon the hills, were too far off for me to observe them 
well : they say that the whole of their fortifications mounted 
1,500 guns."* 

It has been already remarked, that the interior of this bar- 
baric metropolis does not correspond to the impression made 
upon the eye of a voyager who approaches it from the north- 
eastern point of the compass. The foreigner whose observa- 
tions have just been transcribed relates, that when the en- 
voys from Lord Exmouth entered the gates, they " saw every 
thing contrary to its fine appearance outside." The streets 
are very narrow, dirty, and dark, and were at that time full 
of rubbish. The buildings are all of stone, as well as the 
tops and floors of the houses, with very little wood. Every 
four or five tenements are bound together by arches ; and 
they have but very small windows. This city, therefore, 
could never be burnt by rockets ; shells are the surest 
means for its destruction. The following view, taken by an 
eminent French artist, will give a good idea of the general 



* Expedition to Algiers, p. 30, &c. 



238 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 




View of a Street in Algiers. 

appearance of the edifices in Algiers, and some notion of the 
manner in which the native architects construct their dwel- 
lings. 

Before entering upon the topographical description neces- 
sary to illustrate the present state of the several provinces, 
we shall resume the history of Algiers at the date when it 
was placed under the dominion of the Turks by the younger 
Barbarossa. As soon as this renowned corsair was ap- 
pointed to the command of the Ottoman fleet, the country 
which he had conquered by arms and deceit was committed 
to the superintendence of Hassan Aga, a renegade eunuch, 
who, having passed through every station in the pirate's ser- 
vice, had gained such experience in war as well fitted him 
for an office which required a man of tried and daring 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 239 



courage. Hassan, to show how much he deserved the 
dignity thus conferred upon him, carried on his wonted dep- 
redations against the Christian states with amazing activity, 
and even surpassed Redbeard himself in boldness and cruelty. 
The commerce of the Mediterranean was greatly interrupted 
by his cruisers, and such frequent alarms were given to the 
coast of Spain, that there was a necessity of erecting watch- 
towers at proper distances, and of keeping guards constantly 
on foot, in order to descry the approach of his squadrons, and 
to protect the inhabitants from their ravages. Of this the 
Emperor Charles V. had received repeated complaints from 
his subjects, who represented it as an enterprise suitable at 
once to his power and benevolence, to reduce Algiers, which, 
since the conquest of Tunis, was become the common re- 
ceptacle of all freebooters. They urged upon him, not less 
from considerations of humanity than of political prudence, 
the duty of exterminating that lawless race, the implacable 
enemies of the Christian name. 

a. d. 1541. Charles, who was at war with the sultan as 
well as the King of France, would have found ample em- 
ployment for his troops on the banks of the Danube, as well 
as in the Low Countries, always menaced by his active 
enemy. But, in opposition to the judgment of some of his 
wisest counsellors, he resolved to chastise the barbarians on 
the African coast ; and with this view had already given or- 
ders to prepare a fleet and a large body of land-forces. The 
season unfortunately was far advanced, on which account the 
Pope entreated, and Doria conjured him not to expose his 
whole armament to a destruction almost unavoidable on a 
wild shore during the violence of the autumnal gales. Ad- 
hering, however, to his plan with determined obstinacy, he 
embarked at Porto Venere on board the admiral's galley, 
and soon found that this experienced sailor had not judged 
wrong concerning the element with which he was so well ac- 
quainted. But as his courage was undaunted, ;and his tem- 
per often inflexible, the danger to which he was exposed had 
no other effect than to confirm him in his fatal resolution. 
The force, indeed, which he had collected,, was such as might 
have inspired a prince less adventurous, and less confident in 
his own schemes, with the most sanguine hopes of success. 
It consisted of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse, mostly veterans, 
together with 3,000 volunteers, the flower of the Spanish and 



240 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



Italian nobility, who were desirous of paying court to the em- 
peror, by attending him in his favourite expedition, and eager 
to share in the glory which they believed was about to crown 
his arms. Besides these, there had joined his standard a 
thousand soldiers sent by the Order of St. John, and led by 
a hundred of its most valiant knights. 

Landing near Algiers without opposition, Charles imme- 
diately advanced towards the town. To oppose the in- 
vaders, Hassan had only 800 Turks and 5,000 Moors, partly 
natives of Africa, and partly refugees from Spain. When 
summoned to surrender, he, nevertheless, returned a fierce 
and haughty answer. But with such a handful of troops, 
neither his desperate courage nor consummate skill in war 
could have long resisted forces superior to those which had 
formerly defeated Barbarossa at the head of 60,000 men, and 
reduced Tunis in spite of all his efforts to save it. The 
renegade, however, found in a physical event an auxiliary 
which more than counterbalanced the inequality of the con- 
tending armies ; while his antagonist saw himself exposed to 
a dreadful calamity, against which human prudence and ex- 
ertion could avail nothing. On the second day after his de- 
barkation, and before he had time for any thing more than to 
disperse some Arabs who molested his soldiers on their 
march, the clouds were seen to gather, and the heavens as- 
sumed a threatening aspect. Towards evening rain began to 
fall, accompanied with a violent wind ; and the rage of the 
tempest increasing during the night, the men, who had 
brought nothing ashore but their arms, remained exposed to 
all its fury, without tents or cover of any kind. The ground 
was soon so wet that they could not he down on it ; their 
camp, being in a low situation, was overflowed with water, 
and they sunk at every step to the ankles in mud ; while the 
hurricane augmented to such a degree that, to prevent them- 
' selves from being blown down, they were obliged to thrust 
their spears into the earth, and lay hold of them as a support. 
Hassan was too vigilant an officer to allow so favourable an 
opportunity to escape for attacking his enemy to advantage. 
At the dawn of day he sallied out at the head of his warriors, 
who, having been screened from the storm under their own 
roofs, were fresh and vigorous ; whereas a body of Italians, 
who were stationed nearest the city, dispirited and benumbed 
with cold, fled at the approach of his Turks. The troops at 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



241 



the next post showed indeed greater courage ; but the rain 
had rendered their muskets useless, and having scarcely 
strength to handle their other arms, they were soon thrown 
into confusion. Almost the whole army, with the emperor 
himself in person, w r as obliged to advance before the barba- 
rians could be repulsed ; who, after spreading such general 
consternation, and killing a considerable number of men, re- 
tired at last in good order. 

But all the feeling of this disaster was soon obliterated by 
a more affecting spectacle. As the tempest continued with 
unabated violence, the full light of day showed the ships, on 
which alone their safety depended, driving from their anchors, 
dashing against one another, and many of them forced on 
the rocks, or sinking in the waters. In less than an hour, 
fifteen ships of war and 140 transports, with 8,000 men, per- 
ished before their eyes ; and such of the unhappy sailors as 
escaped the fury of the sea, were murdered by the Arabs as 
soon as they reached land. Charles stood in silent anguish 
and astonishment, witnessing this miserable scene, which at 
once blasted all his hopes of success, and buried in the 
waves the vast stores he had provided, as well for the sub- 
sistence of his troops as the conquest of the country. At 
length the approach of evening covered the face of the deep 
with darkness ; and as it was impossible for the officers 
aboard the squadron to send any intelligence to their com- 
panions who were ashore, these last passed the night in all 
the anguish of suspense and apprehension. Next morning, a 
boat despatched by Dona reached the land with information 
that, having survived the storm, to which, during fifty years 
of a seaman's life, he had never known any equal in fierce- 
ness and horror, he had found it necessary to bear away with 
his shattered vessels to Cape Matafuz. He advised the em- 
peror, as the sky was still tempestuous, to march with all 
speed to that place, where the army could re-embark with 
greater ease. 

This^intelligence, though gratifying, did not fail to involve 
Charles in other cares. The point named by the admiral 
was at least three days' march from his present position ; all 
his provisions were consumed ; his men, worn out with fa- 
tigue, were hardly equal to such a movement, even in a 
friendly country ; and being dispirited by a succession of 
hardships, they were in no condition to undergo new toils. 



242 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



But, as there was no time for deliberation, the camp was in- 
stantly broken up ; and then the sad effects of what they 
had suffered began to appear in a stronger light, and deeper 
Calamities were about to be added to those which they had 
already endured. Some could hardly bear the weight of 
their arms ; others, unable to force their way through deep 
roads, sunk down and died ; many perished by famine, as 
the whole army subsisted chiefly on roots and berries, or on 
the flesh of horses, killed for that purpose by the emperor's 
orders ; numbers were drowned in the swollen brooks ; and 
not a few were slain by the enemy, who, during the greatest 
part of the retreat, harassed them day and night. When 
they arrived at Matafuz, the weather was so much improved 
as to allow a renewal of the communication with the fleet, 
whence they were supplied with provision, and animated 
with the prospect of returning in safety to Europe. But in 
cherishing this hope they were only preparing for themselves 
a deeper disappointment ; for no sooner were they on board 
than, a new storm arising, the ships were scattered, and 
compelled to take refuge in the nearest ports of Italy or 
Spain. The emperor himself was driven back to the Afri- 
can coast, where he was obliged by contrary winds to remain 
several weeks ; and at last he reached his own dominions in 
a condition very different from that in which he finished his 
triumphant expedition against Tunis. 

It was remarked that, during these severe disasters, his 
fortitude and magnanimity never forsook him. He endured 
as great hardships as the meanest soldier ; exposed his per- 
son to all dangers ; visited the sick and wounded ; .and en- 
couraged every one by his words and example. When the 
army embarked, he was among the last who left the shore, 
although a body of Arabs hovered at no great distance ready 
to fall on his rear. By these virtues he atoned in some 
measure for his obstinacy and presumption, in undertaking an 
expedition at once so fatal and so mortifying to his subjects.* 

These hostilities, pursued by Charles, had indeed their 
origin at a still earlier period. When, at the end of the 
fifteenth century, the Moors were expelled from Spain by 
Ferdinand and Isabella, the fears and hatred of the Chris- 
tians followed them to their new abode on the opposite 



* Reign of Charles V., voL iii, T p. 223. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 243 



shores. Cardinal Ximenes, who at that period directed the 
councils of his royal master, prevailed on him to fit out an 
armament, in order to prevent the vindictive Mussulmans 
from acquiring such a degree of strength as might render 
them formidable to the united kingdom of Castile and Arra- 
gon. A fleet, carrying 5,000 soldiers, proceeded from the 
harbour of Malaga in the month of August, 1504, and 
landing near the fort of Marsa-Kebir, the " Portus Magnus" 
of the Romans, took possession of it with little loss. About 
five years afterward, the cardinal himself, whose zeal never 
cooled, assumed the direction of a powerful armament, the 
object of which was to reduce Oran, a town not more than 
a league distant from the seaport just described. This en- 
terprise was likewise crowned with complete success ; upon 
which the most reverend prelate committed the care of the 
expedition to Don Pedro de Navarro, the general-in-chief, 
after instructing him to extend his conquests over the whole 
of the adjacent country. 

The Spanish commander, upon reducing several places in 
the neighbourhood, shaped his course towards Bujeya, which 
fell to him without making any resistance. The surrender 
of this stronghold, which the Moors and Arabs deemed im- 
pregnable, was followed by the submission of all the others 
along the coast ; the rulers of which sent deputies to the 
victor to solicit peace, expressing their readiness to receive 
his soldiers in name of garrison, and even to become tribu- 
tary to the crown of Castile. Algiers, which was then of no 
great importance, was the first to open its gates ; and it was 
\ at this conjuncture that the troops of Ferdinand built the 
j fortress on the small rocky isle at the mouth of its harbour, 
which has since been enlarged into those magnificent de- 
fences wherein the piratical inhabitants have, during two cen- 
turies, reposed their confidence. But the Moors soon be- 
came impatient of the heavy yoke imposed on them by their 
bigoted conquerors. They seized the first opportunity to re- 
volt, with the view of chasing from their towns the infidel 
invaders ; in the course of which effort they adopted the im- 
politic resolution of asking the aid of Barbarossa, who, as 
we have seen, terminated his alliance by subjecting them to 
the government of his patron the Grand Turk. 

The Spaniards, though driven from the open country, still 
kept possession of Oran and other fortified stations on the 



244 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



coast, which they retained till the year 1708, when the Al- 
gerines, taking advantage of the weakness entailed upon their 
enemies by the Succession War, succeeded in expelling the 
Christian garrisons. In 1762, Philip V. sent the Count of 
Montemar, at the head of an array of 30,000 men, who beat 
the Moors, the Arabs, and the Turks united, and once more 
established the authority of his sovereign in Oran and along 
the contiguous shore. This conquest was maintained down 
to the year 1790, when the place was entirely destroyed by 
an earthquake. On this melancholy occurrence, Charles 
IV., unwilling to incur the expense of rebuilding it, gave or- 
ders to evacuate the ruins ; having previously concluded a 
treaty with the dey, in virtue of which he ceded it to his 
highness, as well as the artillery and military stores, the 
greater part of which had been saved. Since that period, 
the Europeans have had no establishment on the coast of 
Barbary, but with the consent of the sovereign of Algiers 
and the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli. 

We find in a periodical work a notice of another expedi- 
tion made by Spain for the chastisement or recovery of Al- 
giers. In 1775, General O'Reilly is said to have landed near 
that receptacle of freebooters, but was compelled to re-embark 
in haste and with considerable loss.* 

The French, though at a different period, were no less ac- 
tive than the Spaniards in their attempts to suppress the 
Barbary corsairs. In 1617, M. Beaulieu was sent against 
the Algerines with a squadron of fifty men-of-war, which de- 
feated their fleet and took two of their vessels, while their 
admiral sunk his own ship and crew rather than fall into his 
enemies' hands. By such decisive measures Louis XIII. 
obtained permission to build a fort on their coasts in place of 
the one formerly occupied by the Marsilians, which the na- 
tives had demolished. This, after some difficulty, he accom- 
plished, and it was called the Bastion of France ; but the 
situation being afterward found inconvenient, the French pur- 
chased the fort of La Cala, and obtained liberty to trade with 
the Arabs and Moors. 

Enriched with the booty acquired in their piratical expedi- 
tions, and inspirited by their occasional success over the fleets 
of the greatest nations of Europe, the chiefs of Algiers, 



* Penny Cyclopaedia, vol. i., p. 329, 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 245 



though they consented to make terras with England, France, 
and Holland, swore eternal war against the Spaniards, Por- 
tuguese, and Italians, whom they regarded as the most de- 
termined enemies of the Mohammedan name. At length, 
Louis XIV., provoked by the outrages they committed on the 
coasts of Provence and Languedoc, sent Admiral Duquesne, 
in 1682, at the head of a considerable force, to chastise the 
robbers and release the captives who had fallen into their 
hands. These orders were executed with so much vigour, 
that the town, assailed by cannon and bombs, was soon en- 
veloped in flames ; the great mosque was battered down, and 
most of the houses were laid in ruins. A sudden change of 
wind prevented him from fully accomplishing his purpose ; 
and it was not till the summer of the following year that he 
poured upon the devoted inhabitants the vengeance of an in- 
censed and injured kingdom. Sending showers of bombs 
into the city several successive days and nights, he created 
so much devastation that the army and all ranks of the state 
sued for peace. The preliminary conditions were, the sur- 
render of all Christian slaves taken under the French flag, 
and the delivery of certain hostages to secure a due fulfil- 
ment of the treaty ; which latter stipulation, as it seemed to 
involve the fate of two high officers, led to a revolution in 
the government, the murder of the dey, and the renewal of 
hostilities with greater fury than eve 1 ". 

Duquesne, enraged at this breach of faith, continued to 
pour in such volleys of shells that, in less than three days, 
the greater part of the city was reduced to ashes ; and the 
fire burnt with such vehemence, that the sea was illumined 
by it more than two leagues around. The new dey, un- 
moved at these disasters, breathed only revenge ; and after 
having put to death all the French who happened to be in 
his power, he ordered their consul to be tied hand and foot, 
and fastened alive to the mouth of a large cannon, whence 
he was shot away and blown to atoms. By this piece of in- 
humanity the admiral was so exasperated, that he did not 
leave Algiers until he had utterly destroyed its fortifications, 
ghipping, arsenals, and stores, and reduced nearly the whole 
Cjf its buildings to a mass of rubbish.* 

All the powers of Europe, indeed, who had ships at sea, 

* Encyclopaedia Britannica, seventh edition, article Algiers. 
X2 



246 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



found it necessary from time to time to interpose for the pro- 
tection of their trade and the honour of their flag. The 
Dutch, for example, after several bloody combats, consented to 
pay a sum of money, and thereby purchase for their national 
colours a show of respect, and for their merchantmen an ex- 
emption from plunder. The Danes and Swedes, too, de- 
spairing of success by compulsory means, adopted a. similar 
policy. The Austrians and Prussians, on the other hand, 
were protected by the special authority of the Porte, who 
had bound himself to that effect by positive treaties. The 
Americans, about twenty years ago, checked by a vigorous 
attack the lawless exactions of the Algerine power. Having 
lost in battle a frigate and a brig, the dey acceded to a paci- 
fication, by which he consented to renounce all tribute, and 
to pay to the victors 60,000 dollars as a compensation for the 
ships his cruisers had robbed or otherwise injured. The 
Italian States have all along been the severest surferers from 
the Barbary corsairs, because, while they have had a great 
number of small vessels employed in their coasting-trade, 
they possessed no navy of sufficient strength , to repress the 
depredations to which they were exposed. 

In 1620, a squadron of English men-of-war was sent against 
Algiers under the command of Sir Robert Mansel ; but of 
this expedition we have no other account than that it returned 
without effecting any thing important. It has been already 
stated that, during the vigorous government of the Common- 
wealth, the gallant Blake inflicted a severe castigation on the 
Tunisians, and at the same time taught the marauding sub- 
jects of the dey to dread the power of England. During 
more than a century, no events occur which might illustrate 
the tone of feeling that subsisted between the Barbary States 
and our government. The losses sustained by the Alge- 
rines during the repeated attacks by Duquesne, in 1682 and 
the following year, had so far brought them to reason, that 
they consented to enter into a treaty advantageous and hon- 
ourable to the government of James the Second. But, not- 
withstanding their desire for peace with a nation now be- 
come so formidable at sea, they lost no opportunity of making 
prizes of all such British ships as they could conveniently 
reach. Upon some outrage of this kind, Captain Beach, in 
1695, drove ashore and burnt seven of their f/igates — an act 
of vigour which produced a renewal of negotiation, and ex- 



THE REGENCY OP ALGIERS. 247 



torted a promise of various concessions. It was not, how- 
ever, till the British had taken Gibraltar and Port Mahon, 
that they could exercise such a check upon the pirates as to 
enforce the observation of treaties ; and since that period 
they have generally shown a greater deference to our wishes 
than to those of any other European power. The French, 
who, by mingled force and flattery, had acquired an ascen- 
dency at the Aigerine court, connived at the ravages com- 
mitted on the commerce of the less warlike nations ; aware 
that the carrying-trade must necessarily be secured for the 
merchants of those kingdoms whose ships were in no danger 
of being detained or pillaged by the maritime robbers. This 
paltry consideration, there is no doubt, induced some of the 
more powerful monarchies of -Europe, not only to tolerate 
the African corsairs, but even to supply them with arms and 
ammunition, to solicit their passes, and to purchase their for- 
bearance by annual presents, which were in effect nothing 
different from disguised tribute. All the condescension, 
however, of those who disgraced themselves with the title of 
allies to these miscreants, was not sufficient to restrain their 
privateers from acts of cruelty and rapine. 

In the year 1748, four cruisers from Algiers captured an 
English packetboat, on her voyage from Lisbon, and conveyed 
her into port, where she was plundered of money and effects 
to the amount of at least 100,000/. Incensed at this out- 
rage, the British ministry despatched Commodore Keppel 
with seven ships of war to demand satisfaction, as well as 
to compromise certain differences which had arisen between 
his majesty and the dey, relative to some arrears of payment 
claimed by the latter. His highness frankly owned that the 
money seized in the prize had been divided among the cap- 
tors, and could not possibly be refunded. Keppel returned 
to Gibraltar ; and, in the sequel, an Aigerine ambassador 
arrived at London with a present of some wild beasts for 
George the Second. This transaction was soon succeeded 
by one still more disgraceful. Mr. Latton, a commissioner 
sent to redeem English captives, w T as grossly insulted by the 
Governor of Tetuan, because he would not consent to pay a 
sum for which he was not accountable. His house was 
surrounded by soldiers, who dragged his secretary from his 
presence, and threw him into a dungeon Tthe Christian 
slaves were condemned to the same fate ; the ambassador 



248 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS, 



himself was degraded from his character, deprived of his 
allowance, and sequestered from all communication. And 
yet, after these numerous indignities offered to the honour 
of the British nation, the balance demanded by the Turk 
was duly paid, and the affair quietly adjusted.* 

As the naval power of Britain increased, the ravages of 
the Barbary corsairs became less frequent and atrocious. 
They no longer domineered over the high seas, nor attempted 
to annoy the vessels belonging to the greater nations ; nor 
did the latter deign to purchase immunity by the continuance 
of a disgraceful tribute. The Algerines more prudently 
selected for their prey the small kingdoms of the Sicilies and 
Sardinia ; making descents upon their coasts ; carrying off 
all kinds of property, and even such of the inhabitants of 
both sexes as might seem most suitable for the slave-market. 
At the Congress of Vienna, accordingly, it became a subject 
of deliberation what means should be adopted to put a final 
stop to these enormities, and to secure protection to the 
Italian shores, which had suffered so much from the barba- 
rian invaders. The return of Bonaparte from Elba prevented 
the arrangement of measures for accomplishing this desirable 
object ; but no sooner was the peace of Europe again restored, 
than the British government, in conjunction with the Dutch, 
resolved to give efficiency to the wishes of their allies. Lord 
Exmouth and Sir Thomas Maitland, invested with the com- 
mand of separate squadrons, were sent to Tunis to demand 
the restitution of all the captives actually in bondage, and 
the relinquishment for ever of those piratical practices, which 
were so justly condemned by the European sovereigns. In this 
mission the gallant commanders succeeded, and were grati- 
fied not only by the liberation of the unfortunate persons who 
had already fallen into the hands of the rovers, but also with 
the assurance that nothing more than the sanction of the 
Porte was required in order to abolish Christian slavery in 
all future times.- 

These concessions enraged the Algerines, who instantly 
began to strengthen their fortifications, as if they had deter- 
mined to resist the combined force of all the maritime states, 
and pursue their violent system on a larger scale. The sol- 
diery, in their blind rage, had recourse to an outrage of the 



* History of England, vol. xi. } p. 274, edition 1812. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 249 



most execrable nature. A number of vessels, belonging to 
Naples and the neighbouring ports, had been in the practice 
of assembling at Bona to carry on the pearl-fishery, in which, 
upon payment of an annual tribute, they were protected by 
the dey. Suddenly these peaceful and industrious seamen 
were surrounded by a band of Moors, who commenced an in- 
discriminate massacre, which could not be justified on any 
ground or pretence, and seems to have had no object but to 
show their implacable hatred to the Christian name.* 

This cruel insult called forth the fleets of England and 
Holland, and led to the memorable attack by Lord Exmouth 
in August, 1816. Sailing with five ships of the line and 
eight small vessels, he was joined at Gibraltar by Admiral 
Capellen with six Dutch frigates. An attempt was made to 
withdraw the British consul and his family from the danger 
and embarrassment in which they could not fail to be placed 
during an assault on the town; but the efforts of Captain 
Dashwood, who was intrusted with this important service, 
could accomplish nothing besides the removal of two ladies, 
the wife and daughter of our resident, in the disguise of 
naval officers. 

It was not till the 26th of the month that his lordship appear- 
ed before Algiers, when he sent to the dey a flag of truce, con- 
veying to his highness the conditions on which alone the med- 
itated attack might be averted. He insisted on the final 
abolition of Christian slavery ; the immediate freedom of all 
slaves within the territory of Algiers ; the repayment of every 
ransom paid for the redemption of captives by the Kings of 
Sicily and Sardinia ; the liberation of the consul and all other 
British subjects now in confinement ; and, lastly, peace with 
the King of the Netherlands. Two hours were allowed to 
return an answer ; and in the meantime, as a favourable 
breeze sprang up, Lord Exmouth moved forward his ships 
till he found himself within a mile of the batteries, where he 
remained prepared for action. 

The period allowed for deliberation having elapsed, the 
admiral's ship passed through all the enemy's batteries with- 
out firing a gun, and, to the astonishment of the natives, took 
up a position within less than 100 yards of the mole ; upon 
which, says M. Salame, the interpreter, we gave them three 



* Encyclopasdia Brit., article Algiers, p, 510, 



250 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



cheers : " The batteries as well as the walls being crowded 
with troops, they jumped upon the top of the parapets to 
look at us, for our broadside was higher than their batteries ; 
and they were quite surprised to see a three-decker with the 
rest of the fleet so close to them. From what I observed of 
the captain of the port's manner, and of their confusion inside 
of the mole, I am quite sure that even they themselves did 
not know what they were about, nor what we meant to do ; 
because, according to their judgment, they thought that we 
should be terrified by their fortifications, and not advance 
so rapidly and closely to the attack. In proof of this, I must 
observe that, at this point, their guns were not even loaded ; 
and they began to load them after the Queen Charlotte and 
almost all the fleet had passed their batteries. At a few min- 
utes before three, the Algerines, from the Eastern Battery, 
fired the first shot at the Impregnable, which, with the Superb 
and the Albion, was astern of the other ships, to prevent them 
from coming in. Then Lord Exmouth, having seen only the 
smoke of the gun, before trio sound reached him, said with 
great alacrity, 'That will do ; fire, my fine fellows !' and I 
am sure, that before his lordship had finished these words, 
our broadside was given with great cheering, and at the 
same time the other ships did the same. The first fire was 
so terrible, that, they say, more than 500 persons were killed 
or wounded by it ; and I believe this, because there was a 
great crowd of people in every part, many of whom, after the 
first discharge, I saw running away, like dogs, walking upon 
their hands and feet." The conflict continued with unabated 
fury on both sides not less than five hours ; at the end of 
which time, the Algerines beginning to lose strength or 
courage, the vivacity of their fire appeared evidently to di- 
minish. At eleven o'clock, his lordship having observed the 
destruction of their whole navy and the strongest part of 
their works, made a signal to the fleet to move out of the 
line of the batteries ; " and thus, with a favourable breeze, 
we cut our cables, as did the whole squadron, and made 
sail at about half past eleven. At this time their navy, with 
the storehouses within the mole, were burning very rapidly. 
The blaze illumined all the bay, with the town and the envi- _ 
rons ; the view of which was really most awful and beauti- 
fuJ ; nine frigates and a great number of gunboats, with other 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 251 



Vessels, being all in flames, and carried by the wind in dif- 
ferent directions."* 

Next morning the British admiral renewed the offer of 
peace, when the terms originally proposed were readily ac- 
cepted. By virtue of this treaty, 1,211 slaves were released, 
in add : 'ion to about 1,800 liberated during the former expe- 
dition to the coast of Barbary. The dey, whose obstinacy 
occasioned this great loss of life and property, did not long 
survive the negotiation , in which he was compelled to sur- 
render nearly all that the Algerines had been accustomed to 
value. He was taken from Ins throne, and precipitated from 
one of the windows of the palace into the courtyard, where, 
according to custom, he was immediately despatched. 

The castigation inflicted by Lord Exmouth, severe as it 
was, did not long restrain the freebooters within the bounds 
of moderation. No effort was spared to place the city in a 
more formidable state of defence than ever ; and they soon 
considered themselves again in a condition to set even the 
great powers at defiance. The trade of the French was first 
interrupted ; and when their consul ventured to remonstrate 
on the subject, he was answered by reproaches and the most 
galling insults. Charles X. then declared war, and sent a 
number of ships against Algiers ; but the fortifications on the 
seaside were found so strong that his admiral was obliged to 
confine himself to an ineffectual blockade. At length it 
was resolved to adopt more energetic measures ; and a large 
fleet under Duperre, with a land-force amounting to upward 
of 30,000 men, under General Bourmont, sailed from Mar- 
seilles in May, 1830. On the 14th June the troops began to 
debark in the bay of Torre Chica, and were only partially 
interrupted by a few lighthorse who approached the beach, 
and by the fire of some batteries erected in the neighbourhood. 
It should seem that the Turks, confident in their numbers or 
the strength of their position, allowed the invaders to land, 
and even to carry ashore their artillery, provisions, and stores. 
Five days elapsed before they took the field against Bour- 
mont, having perhaps spent the interval in assembling the 
various contingents from Oran, Constantina, and Titteri. 
On the 19th they commenced an attack on the French, with 
a force estimated at 50,000, chiefly horsemen, who charged 



* Salarne, Expedition to Algiers, p. 37, &c, 



252 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



with such impetuosity, that they penetrated the enemy's line 
at several points ; nor was it until after a very obstinate con- 
flict that they began their retreat, which, as usual, ended ire 
a complete rout. 

But, though repulsed, they had no intention to abandon 
their country to the Christians without a farther struggle. 
They accordingly renewed their assault upon the French- 
camp, day after day, until some severe checks, and a convic- 
tion of their inferiority as soldiers, compelled them to fall 
back towards the Desert. Bourmont now advanced to the' 
city, which, after a smart bombardment, yielded at discretion. 
Twelve ships of war, 1,500 brass cannon, with a large sum of 
money, came into the hands of the conquerors ; and on the 
5th of July, their flag waved on all the forts. The Turkish 
troops were permitted to go wherever they pleased, provided 
they should leave Algiers ; most of whom desired to be land- 
ed in Asia Minor. The dey, in the first instance, chose Na- 
ples for the place of his retirement ; and, it is well known, 
he enjoyed repose, and even some degree of consideration, 
till the day of his death. 

The success of this bold measure has, in the meantime, 
relieved the Mediterranean from the dread of piracy, and the 
European shores from the horrors which always accompanied 
the inroads of the merciless Moors. But it must be doubt- 
ful whether the conquest, in any other respect, will gratify the 
nation whose arms achieved it. The climate is indeed good, 
the soil rich, and the situation at once romantic and delight- 
ful ; but the inhabitants of the adjacent country are destitute 
of honour, regardless of treaties, strangers to the refined en- 
joyments of social life, addicted to plunder, and accustomed 
to consider war as their profession. M. Rozet acknowledges, 
that in their hostilities with the Bedouins, the regular troops 
of France, so far from gaining any ultimate advantage, must 
be content with a temporary triumph ; for, as soon as the 
Arab horsemen attain the border of the Sahara, they can set 
at defiance the best hussars of Europe. Hence we cannot 
be surprised to learn, that the conquerors of Algiers are con- 
fined to the walls of most of the towns which they occupy ; 
that they cannot venture to take possession of the lands ; and 
that the hope of a prosperous colonization of Northern Af- 
rica becomes daily less encouraging. The great expense, 
moreover, incident to the military establishment still neces- 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 253 



sary for the primary object of the expedition, presses upon 
the government of Louis Philippe, who, it would appear, has 
already listened to several proposals for withdrawing his 
troops. 

The actual state of Algiers is well illustrated by the offi- 
cer just named, who made part of the expedition, and after- 
ward resided sixteen months in the regency. His account 
of the town* both as to its external appearance and its inte- 
rior arrangements, agrees in substance with those already 
iven ; confirming, in every particular, the striking contrast 
etween the view obtained of it from the sea, and the entire 
want of architectural ornament and even of convenience 
within. The brilliant aspect which it exhibits at a distance, 
With its whitewashed roofs, reminded him of an open chalk- 
quarry on the side of a hill ; but when he entered the gates, 
he found that the breadth of its main street did not exceed 
nine feet, one half of which was occupied by the projection 
of the houses. This alley opens into another called Bab el 
Ouad, which penetrates the whole length of the city from 
south to north, and is in some places so narrow that a loaded 
mule fills it from side to side. It is, however, remarkable 
for one of those fountains or public wells which are seen in 
every lane of Algiers, and prove the source of much comfort 
as well as health to the inhabitants. The following cut af- 
fords a good representation of the one which adorns the street 
we are now describing.* 

From the same account, we find that the strength of the 
Mole-Battery has not been overrated by former writers. 
When the French entered the bay, they observed on that for- 
tification alone not fewer than 237 pieces of cannon, forming 
five tiers, one above another, the first of which carried guns 
varying from thirty-six to ninety-six pounders. They were 
placed in vaulted casements, bomb-proof, the walls of which, 
constructed of hewn stone, were about ten feet thick. 

Speaking of Algiers as it was before the reduction of it by 
General Bourmont, we may remark that the government was 

* " Dans chaque rue on trouve plusieurs fontaines alimen- 
tees par des aqueducs : ses fontaines sont formees par un en- 
foncement dans le mur, que termine un cintre ou une ogive 
composed de la reunion de deux arcs de cercle, et toujours or- 
nees de desseins arabesque parfaitement sculptes." — Rozet, vol. 



254 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 




Gate and Fountain of Bab el Ouad, 
entirely despotic, and that the dey had the power of life and 
death over all his subjects. There was no law but his own 
will, and this was executed with an astonishing degree of 
promptitude. In the year 1830, when the soldiers of Charles 
X. drove from his throne this deputy of the grand seignior, 
they discovered that the whole authority of the state was in 
his hands ; that he rewarded and punished at his discretion ; 
disposed of all employments ; and made peace or proclaimed 
war without being obliged to give an account of his conduct 
to any one. He had nothing to fear but the sanguinary re- 
volts of his janizaries, who, when they chose to become dis- 
satisfied with their sovereign, flew to arms, surrounded his 
palace, put him to death, and nominated his successor from 
their own ranks. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



255 



We have already suggested that the regency was divided 
into four provinces, three of which were immediately gov- 
erned by beys, namely, Constantina, Titteri, and Oran. 
Each of these local rulers had a guard, consisting of a few 
hundreds of Turkish soldiers, who had their headquarters in 
his capital, and accompanied him in all his expeditions. 

As the administration had long assumed a military char- 
acter, every man, on certain emergencies, was bound to be a 
soldier ; but the Ottoman militia, or janizaries, formed the 
regular army, to whom was added a corps of koulouglis — the 
offspring of Turks and Christian slaves — into which were 
-sometimes admitted a contingent of Moors. This militia has 
fly some authors been rated as high as 15,000, by others 
at 8,000 ; but Rozet remarks, that when the French took Al- 
giers, they found not more than from 2,000 to 3,000 capable 
of bearing arms. The cavalry, the strength of which varied 
according to circumstances, was composed of Berbers and 
Arabs, to whom were granted certain advantages, in order 
to secure a continuance of their services. It is allowed by 
the staff-officer, on whose authority we now proceed, that 
the Turks were brave and generous in battle ; and that, after 
victory, they never put their hands to plunder, but left the 
spoils of the field to be gathered by the Moors and their 
slaves.* 

The navy of the dey, although the terror of Europe, was 
at no time very considerable. The French found only one 
large frigate on the stocks, two in the harbour, two corvettes, 
eight or ten brigs, and about thirty-two armed sloops. For 
some years the whole marine had belonged to his highness, 
the privilege of arming on their own account having been 
withdrawn from private individuals, except in the case of very 
small vessels, which were permitted to carry on a coasting- 
trade and use weapons for their own defence. 

The revenue of Algiers, if restricted to the usual resources 
of the country, did not exceed 130,000/. When General 
Bourmont took possession of the dey's palace, certain rec- 
ords were discovered, which enabled M. Gerardin, appointed 
" director of the domains," and M. Fougeron, inspector of 
finances, to ascertain the precise sum which each province or 
government contributed to the expenses of the state. Oran 



* Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, vol. iii., p. 367* 



256 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



and Constantina paid 1,401,213 francs annually, and it is sup- 
posed that the receipts from the other districts might increase 
the sum to three millions — a small return from a country 
500 or 600 miles in length, and 150 in breadth. To these 
regular funds, however, must be added the occasional pay- 
ments made by foreign crowns, the value of the numerous 
prizes taken by the corsairs, and the presents offered by a 
variety of functionaries which had long ceased to be voluntary. 
Still it cannot fail to appear surprising, that the treasury of 
the dey should have contained, when it fell into the hands of 
the captors, not less than fifty millions of francs in gold and 
silver. Considering the immense fortifications which he 
erected, not only at the capital, but along a coast of more 
than thirty miles in extent, we naturally come to the conclu- 
sion formed by M. Rozet, that piracy must have furnished to 
him larger sums than he drew from all the lands under his 
acknowledged sway.* 

The wars which have been occasionally waged between 
Algiers and Tunis, do not reflect much honour either upon 
the courage or fidelity of the native troops. In the spring 
of the year 1807, the armies of these neighbouring states, to 
decide some national quarrel, took the field, amounting on 
either side to about 30,000 men. The Tunisians, who advan- 
ced towards the west with the view of reducing Constantina, 
were, upon the first appearance of their enemies, seized with 
a sudden panic, and fled with such precipitation that the Al- 
gerines, without trouble or danger, took entire possession of 
their camp, baggage, and 15,000 camels laden with provis- 
ions. Many of the fugitives reached their capital without 
once stopping or daring to look back ; and numerous horse- 
men rode their animals with such speed, that they fell down 
dead under them. 

In a few months the bey was ready to renew the campaign, 
eager to recover the reputation he had lost, and to accomplish 
the important object which had called him to arms. But his 
followers had not in the interval acquired any higher military 
qualities, nor greater confidence in their own prowess. A wa- 
tering-party, who happened to come in sight of a detachment 
from the opposite camp, fell back in such confusion that they 
carried terror into the main body, who, in their turn, prepared 



* Rozet, vol. iii., p. 387. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 257 



for flight. The cavalry were already off, and the infantry 
were about to imitate their example, while the commanding 
officer, enveloped in a cloud of sand, knew not whether the 
masses of troops which moved around him in all directions 
were friends or foes. A Greek slave, who had charge of the 
artillery, perceived in the confusion that the Algerines were 
advancing to complete their destruction ; upon which, with- 
out any orders, he applied a match to one of the pieces point- 
ed against the suspected squadrons, and killed the horse of a 
chief The assailants, terrified at this accident, turned their h 
backs and galloped towards their tents — a movement which 
the Tunisian cavalry no sooner observed, than they recovered 
from their fears and began a vigorous pursuit. 

The following morning both armies assumed their weap- 
ons, and formed themselves in line of battle on the opposite 
banks of a small river ; and now, a kind of irregular fight 
commenced, which continued till sunset without any serious 
injury being sustained on either side. When the shades of 
evening began to thicken, the Algerines fired a cannon with- 
out ball — a signal perfectly understood among these heroes, 
that they were willing to suspend the strife till next day. 
Both paused, in the most accommodating manner, and made 
instant arrangements for food and repose ; but the sentries 
who watched the camp of the dey, observing on the neigh- 
bouring hills a detachment of cavalry, gave the alarm to their 
companions, and in an instant terror and confusion spread 
through their lines. The warriors of Algiers, who had gained 
so many laurels in the month of March, consented to lose 
them all in July. They fled with precipitation during the 
night, leaving to the unconscious victors the whole of their 
stores, provisions, and camels, together with twenty field- 
pieces and four mortars. Contented with their acquisitions, 
so easily attained, the soldiers of the bey deemed it inexpe- 
dient to hazard their riches and renown by advancing upon 
Constantina, although the gates of that town were already 
thrown open to them. They more prudently resolved to re- 
turn to Tunis, where, amid the acclamations of the citizens, 
they might enjoy the fruits of their valour, and cultivate all 
the warlike virtues. It will not excite wonder, that in these 
engagements very few men were killed, wounded, or taken 
prisoners ; for the combatants were drawn out to menace 
each other rather than to fight ; while the distance at which 
Y2 



258 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



they used their arms rendered their encounter comparatively 
harmless.* 

It would afford neither entertainment nor instruction, were 
we to narrate the unimportant events which have occasionally 
arisen from the mutual jealousy of these states, and from 
the repeated attempts made by successive deys to acquire an 
ascendency over Tunis. We shall therefore proceed . to 
describe the chief cities in the several provinces of Algiers, 
beginning with the government of Constantina. 

Entering this territory from the east, our attention is first 
drawn to Bona, the Hippo Regius of the Romans, and the 
episcopal see of the celebrated Augustine. The modem 
town is about a mile nearer the shore than the ancient one, 
and stands on ground which appears to have been once 
covered by the waves. The ruins of the latter are spread 
over a neck of land which lies between two rivers, about a 
mile and a half in circuit, and presenting the usual features 
of broken walls and cisterns. It had the epithet of Regius 
attached to it, not only to distinguish it from Hippo Zaritus, 
but from its being one of the royal residences of the Numid- 
ian kings. Dr. Shaw relates, that a large quantity of corn, 
wool, hides, and wax, is every year shipped off from this 
place, which, by proper care and encouragement, might be 
made the most flourishing city in Barbary ; while by remo- 
ving the rubbish, repairing the old buildings, and introducing 
a supply of water, it would certainly be rendered one of the 
most convenient and delightful. 

We have passed by Tabarca, the ancient Thabraca, 
because it presents nothing of which the description could 
interest the reader. Between this position and Bona is the 
settlement of La Cala, where, as already noticed, the French 
had a large coral-fishery and a regular fort. The town, 
which bears the same name, is walled round, and has three 
gates ; the main street, which is well paved, divides the 
peninsula longitudinally, and is about sixty feet wide. The 
buildings on each side consist of a church, a governor's 
house, private dwellings, granaries, guardhouse, and barracks. 
When France possessed it, the garrison usually amounted to 
500 men. In 1806, the British government contracted with 

* Account of Tunis, p. 45. See also Pananti's Narrative, p. 
335, &c. > 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



259 



the Dey of Algiers for the occupation of La Cala, Bona, and 
Cool, stipulating to pay the annual sum of 50,000 dollars ; 
it being supposed that the coral-fishery alone would reim- 
burse a great proportion of the yearly expenditure. The 
violation of this treaty by his highness, and the massacre of 
the fishermen, led, as we have already noticed, to the bom- 
bardment of his capital under the direction of Lord Exmouth. 
At the present moment, this part of the coast is subject to 
ihe military authorities who represent Louis Philippe in 
"Northern Africa. 

Constantina, the ancient Cirta, is the principal city in the 
.eastern province, and still attests by its ruins its former 
greatness. It is said to stand thirty leagues south from 
Bona, occupying a high hill, or what Shaw rather enigmati- 
cally calls a peninsular promontory. The visiter enters from 
the north over a stupendous Roman bridge, having three 
rows of lofty arches ; and when inside the town, he is every- 
where struck with relics of ancient splendour. Granite pil- 
lars, broken friezes, pedestals, and a variety of Greek, Latin, 
and Runic inscriptions, are frequently observed. Besides 
the general traces of ruins scattered all over this place, there 
are still remaining near the centre of the city those capa- 
cious cisterns which received the water brought from Phys- 
geah by an aqueduct — a great part of which continues en- 
tire, and " is very sumptuous." There is a gate of a beauti- 
ful reddish stone, not inferior to marble well polished ; the 
side-pillars being neatly moulded in panels. An altar of 
purely white marble makes part of a neighbouring wall ; the 
only side of it in view presenting a well-shaped chalice in 
bold relief. The gate towards the southeast is in the same 
fashion and design, though much smaller, and lies open to a 
bridge that was built over this part of the valley. This, in- 
deed, was a masterpiece in its kind ; the gallery, and the 
columns of the arches, being adorned with cornices and fes- 
toons, ox-heads and garlands. The keystones, likewise, of 
the arches, are covered with sculptured ornaments. Below 
the gallery, between the two principal arches, is the figure 
of a lady treading on two elephants, well executed in high 
relief. Among the ruins, to the southwest of the bridge, 
remains the greater part of a triumphal arch, called Cassir 
Gowlah, the Castle of the Giant, consisting of three arches. 
All the mouldings and friezes are curiously embellished with 



260 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



the figures of flowers, battleaxes, and other devices. The 
Corinthian pilasters, on each side of the grand arch, are 
panelled like the gates of the city, in a style peculiar to 
Cirta. The population of this interesting place is said to 
amount to not less than 30,000 Moors, Jews, and Turks. 

About twenty miles to the northwest of Constantina stands 
Mileu, the Milevum of the ancients, in the centre of a most 
beautiful group of hills and valleys. It is surrounded with 
gardens, and plentifully stocked with fountains ; one of which, 
bubbling up in the middle of the town, is received into a 
large square basin of Roman workmanship. From this fer- 
tile district the capital is chiefly supplied with herbs and 
fruits, which are accounted excellent : the pomegranates, in 
particular, are of so large a size, and have so delicate a 
flavour, that they are in great request all over the kingdom. 

The whole of this province still retains the most satis- 
factory tokens that it was long occupied by the Romans. 
Remarkable ruins may still be seen at Tezzoute, the Lam- 
besa of classical authors, which cover an area nearly three 
leagues in circumference. Besides the magnificent frag- 
ments of the city gates, the number of which, according to 
the tradition of the Arabs, was not less than forty, there are 
the seats and upper part of an amphitheatre ; the front of a 
beautiful Ionic temple dedicated to Esculapius ; a large ob- 
long chamber with a great door on each side of it, intended, 
perhaps, for a triumphal arch ; and the Cupola of the Bride, 
as the natives denominate a very handsome, though small 
mausoleum, built in the fashion of a dome, supported by 
Corinthian pillars. " These," says Dr. Shaw, 11 and several 
other edifices of the like elegant structure, sufficiently de- 
monstrate the importance and magnificence of this city."* • 
Proceeding westward we come to Bujeya, or Boojeiah, 
called by Strabo the port of Saida, which stands upon a 
neck of land running out into the sea. It is built upon the 
ruins of a large city, and displays the remains of extensive 
walls, basins, and aqueducts, most of which, however, have 
suffered from the ravages of war. At present, besides the 
castle on the summit of a hill which commands the whole 
town, there are two forts at the bottom of it, erected for the 
security of the harbour ; where several breaches may still be 



* Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 126. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 261 



observed in the bastions, made by the balls fired against them 
by Sir Edward Spragge, who attacked it in the year 1671. 

Having mentioned the principal places in the government 
of Constantina, we shall advert very briefly to those of 
Titteri. In the days of Dr. Shaw, this province was con- 
sidered as being comprehended in the territory of Algiers, 
having for its capital the metropolis of the kingdom ; and, 
even in our times, its small extent seems not to entitle it to 
the honour of a separate jurisdiction. Bleeda and Medea, 
the only cities of this district, are each of them about a mile 
in circuit ; but their walls, which are chiefly composed of 
mud, and perforated everywhere with hornets, cannot be said 
Jo contribute either to their strength or beauty. The houses 
are in general flat-roofed, though some of them are tiled, 
but have hardly any other accommodation to recommend 
them as permanent residences than an abundant supply of 
water. A branch of an adjacent rivulet may be conducted 
through every dwelling and garden at Bleeda ; while at 
Medea, the conduits and aqueducts that supply it, some of 
which appear to be of Roman workmanship, are capable of 
being so extended as to prove equally commodious. 

That part of the Atlas which lies between these towns, 
and extends as far as Mount Jurjura, is inhabited by numer- 
ous hordes of Kabyles, few of whom, confiding in their 
strong country, have ever been tributary to the Algerines. 
The mountain just named is the highest in Barbary, and 
about twenty-four miles in length ; having its summit, 
throughout the winter, covered deeply with snow, and pre- 
senting, from the one end to the other, an uninterrupted 
range of barren peaks and precipices. About fifteen miles 
southward from Medea is the "Rock of Titteri," a re- 
markable ridge, four leagues in extent, and, if possible, even 
more rugged than Jurjura. Upon the top there is a large 
piece of level ground, with only one narrow road leading up 
to it, where, for their greater security, the tribe of Welled 
Eisa have their granaries. Beyond them are the encamp- 
ments of the sons of Innane, the principal Arabs of the dis- 
trict of Titteri, properly so called, which lies only in the 
neighbourhood of this mountain. 

Five leagues to the eastward of the rock now specified is 
the Burgh Hamza or Castle of Hamza, built from the ruins 
of the ancient Auzea, now called by the Arabs Sour Guslan, 



262 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



the Walls of the Antelopes. A great part of the old city, 
fortified at proper distances with small square turrets, is still 
remaining ; the whole of which, it is conjectured, could not 
exceed six furlongs in circumference. Of this place, once 
important as a military station, Tacitus has given a very 
good description ; for it was erected upon a small plat of 
level ground, everywhere surrounded with bare hills and 
gloomy forests, inspiring the mind of the traveller with the 
profoundest melancholy.* 

Advancing towards the Sahara, we become acquainted 
with the names of various clans who feed their flocks on its 
borders, and of several hills which define their boundaries, 
or prove a landmark to their scattered dependances. The 
most distant, and in some respects the most savage, are the 
Beni Mezzab, whose chief employment is the slaughter of 
animals for the markets of Algiers. It has been observed 
of these sons of Mezzab, that they are in general of a more 
swarthy complexion than the Getulians, who dwell farther to 
the north ; and, as they are separated from them by a wide 
inhospitable desert, they may probably be found to be a 
branch of the Melano-Getuli, or Black Getulians, so little 
known in the modern systems of geography, t 

The province which divides Algiers from Morocco bears 
the name of Tlemsan, the Moorish corruption of the ancient 
term Tremezen, and comprehends several towns that, from 
their historical importance rather than their actual condition, 
are not undeserving of a short description. The capital, 
known by the same appellation as the surrounding district, 
stands upon a rising ground below a range of precipices 
stretching from the Atlas Mountains. In the western part 
of the city there is a large basin, the work of the natives, 
which receives the numerous rills that trickle down from the 
elevated land towards the south, affording an ample supply 
of water for the beautiful gardens and plantations in the 
neighbourhood. Most of the walls of Tlemsan have been 
built, or rather moulded, in frames — a method which was 

* Nec multo post adfertur Numidas apud castellum semini- 
tum, ab ipsis quondam incensum, cui nomen Auzea, positis 
mapalibus consedisse rlsos quia vastis circum saltibus claudeba- 
tur. — Tacit. Annal., lib. iv. 

f Shaw, vol. i., p. 99. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



263 



Used by the Africans and Spaniards so early as the days of 
Pliny. The mortar of which they consist is made up of 
sand, lime, and gravel, and has, by being well tempe-ed, ac- 
quired all the strength and durability of stone. The dimen- 
sions of these frames can still be determined; some of 
which must have been 100 yards in length and two yards in 
height and thickness About the year 1670, Hassan, the 
Dey of Algiers, laid most of this town in ruins, as a punish- 
ment for the disaffection of the inhabitants ; so that there is 
not now remaining above one sixth of the old metropolis, 
which, when entire, appears to have been at least four miles 
in circuit. In the dilapidated parts of the more ancient city 
are to be seen shafts of pillars and other relics of Roman 
magnificence ; ana Dr. Shaw observed in the walls of a 
mosque, constructed of the original materials, a number of 
altars dedicated to heathen gods.* 

Still farther south are discovered, in a variety of situa- 
tions, the vestiges of Roman towns ; which, however, con- 
vey no information beyond the simple fact, that a civilized 
people, powerful in arms, were once masters of the country. 
The ruins of Arbaal, M emon, El Herta, Maliana, and Aquae 
Calidae Colonia, forcibly recall the descriptions of classical 
authors. In the vicinity of the station last named, are 
several tombs and coffins of stone, containing, if the narra- 
tives of the inhabitants might be believed, skeletons and 
armour of a much larger size than could belong to men of 
modern times. The usages of the Goths and Vandals, who 
not unfrequently buried the horse and the rider in one grave, 
may account for the huge bones and long swords still found 
in that section of Africa, and at the same time illustrate the 
fine verses of the poet. 

" Agricola incurvo terram molitus aratro, 
Exesa inveniet scabra rubigine pila : 
Aut gravibus rastris galeas pulsabit inanes, 
Grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulchris." 

Virg. Georg., lib.i., v. 494. 

" Then, after length of time, the lab'ring swains 
Who turn the turfs of those unhappy plains, 
Shall rusty piles from the ploughed furrows take, 
And over empty helmets pass the rake — 
Amazed at antique titles on the stones, 
And mighty relics of gigantic bones." — Dryden. 

S 

* Travel? in oarbary, vol. i., p. G9, 



264 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



The country around, possessed by various tribes, present* 
a succession of exceedingly rugged hills and deep valleys, 
very difficult and even dangerous to pass over. Yet, says 
the best of our travellers, this danger and fatigue are amply 
compensated by visiting the delightful plains of the Hadjoute 
and Metijah, which lie beyond them ; those of the latter 
being nearly fifty miles long and twenty broad, and watered 
in every part by numerous springs and rivulets.* 

Ascending to the coast, and turning towards Algiers, we? 
arrive at the celebrated town of Oran, the possession of 
which was so long contested between the Spaniards and ther 
Moors. It is described as being built upon the declivity, and 
near the foot of a mountain, which overlooks it from the 
north and west. On the high ground are two castles, which 
command the city on the one side, and the Marsa-Kebir on 
the other ; while, on a lower level, are two forts, separated 
from the houses by a deep winding valley, which serves as a 
natural trench on the south. Hence it is manifest that this 
seaport is capable of an easy defence, and might be held by 
a small European garrison in spite of the utmost exertions 
of the natives. 

This description, given on the authority of Shaw, is con- 
firmed by the details of M. Rozet, who spent some time at 
Oran after the conquest of Algiers. The town, according to 
him, occupies two elongated platforms, separated from each 
other by a steep valley, in which runs a stream sufficiently 
strong to turn several mills, and to supply the inhabitants 
with abundance of water. The annexed view, taken by him 
on the spot, wall assist the imagination of the reader in form- 
ing an idea of this remarkable station. 

When the French army advanced to take possession of 
Oran, all the occupants of the town, with the exception of 
300 or 400, saved themselves by flight, carrying with them 
their property, wives, and children. The Jews alone re- 
mained, arid have proved faithful to their new masters ; 
showing, on various occasions, not less attachment to their 
cause than military talent in defending it. Rozet conjectures 
that the population, before this dispersion, must have amount- 
ed to between 5,000 and 6,000, consisting of Moors, Arabs, 
Negroes, Turks, Jews, and Koulouglis, whose habits, he 



* Shaw, vol. i.,p. 81. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 267 



found, differed little from those of the same classes in Al- 
giers. Before this intelligent officer left the place, many of 
the Mohammedans had returned to resume their occupa- 
tions, while the peasantry, rinding protection and encourage- 
ment, were again venturing to market with their corn, butter, 
poultry, and eggs. The inhabitants appeared, in his eyes, to 
deserve the reputation of courage ; and having been allowed 
to retain their arms, they never laid them aside, however 
they might happen to be employed. The dealers in the shops 
had muskets by their sides ; and the waiters in coffee-houses 
had a dagger or a pair of pistols suspended to their girdles. 
But, he adds, they never used them against the French.* 

The Spaniards, during the first time they were in posses- 
sion of this place, built several beautiful churches and large 
edifices in the style of the Romans ; carrying their imitation so 
far as to carve upon the friezes and other convenient parts a 
variety of inscriptions in their own language. But neither at 
Oran nor Geeza, a small village about two miles distant from 
it, are there any antiquities, properly so called ; the adjoining 
country having often changed masters, suffered much from 
war, and been long in the hands of Europeans, who have re- 
modelled all its structures. ^ 

Leaving the village of Carastel and the port of Anze, the 
traveller in Barbary comes to Mostagan, a town separated 
from the plain by a circle of hills, and commanding a fine 
view of the sea. It is larger than Oran, and esteemed next 
to Tlemsan in point of wealth and consequence. Between 
Masagran and this city there are numerous gardens, orchards, 
and country-seats, ranged in beautiful variety all along the 
shore ; the acclivities behind not only sheltering them from 
the hot scorching winds which sometimes blow in those di- 
rections, but also abounding in fountains of water, which re- 
fresh and cherish vegetation. The appearance of the walls 
and other portions of ancient architecture, removes all doubt 
that it must have been a Roman station of great impor- 
tance, probably the Cartenna of Pliny and of the geographer 
Ptolemy, t 

The next place of note on the coast is the Jol, or Julia Gaesa- 

* Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, tome iii., p. 274. Eh 
bicn ! ils ne s'en sont jamais servis contre les Frangais. 
t Travels in Barbary, vol. i., p. 60, &c. 



268 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



rea of the Italian historians. The ruins upon which it 
stood before the earthquake of 1738, were not inferior in ex- 
tent to those of Carthage ; and the judgment which might 
be thereby formed of its original magnificence was confirmed 
by the sight of the fine pillars, capitals, capacious cisterns, 
and beautiful mosaic pavements, that were everywhere re- 
maining. The river, now named Hashem, was conducted, 
thither through a grand aqueduct, nearly equal in magnificence 
and workmanship to that of Carthage ; several portions of 
which, scattered among the neighbouring valleys towards the 
southeast, display, in the height and strength of the arches, 
the most incontestable proofs of the grandeur of its design. 

As this town was destroyed a few years after it was visited 
by Dr. Shaw, we sought with more eagerness in the pages 
of M. Rozet for information respecting its present state. 
We can learn no more than that it stands upon a little plain 
between the shore and the foot of the mountains ; that the 
buildings are after the Moorish fashion, and exhibit the tur- 
rets of three or four mosques ; that the sides of the hills ap- 
pear well cultivated, having rich fields, pasture-lands, and 
gardens intermixed ; and that the creek which serves for a 
port is defended by two batteries without guns. The aque- 
duct he saw only through a telescope, at the distance of four 
miles, but he was satisfied that it must have had a Roman 
origin.* 

About thirteen miles nearer Algiers are the ruins of Te- 
fessad, the Tepasa of the old geographers, which extend 
more than half a league along the coast. Both at this place 
and Shershell are several arches and walls of brick, not com- 
monly seen in other parts of Barbary ; and on a large pan- 
elled stone found there is the following inscription, which 
carries its date beyond the Mohammedan conquest : — 

C. Critico C. F. 
Quirit. Felici. 
Ex Testamento Ejus. 

From this point to the capital, the breadth of the coast, 
generally speaking, is seven or eight miles, and is either 
mountainous or woody ; thereby securing the fine plains 
which lie behind it from the northerly winds and the spray of 



* Voyage, &c, tome iii., p. 258. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. • 271 



the sea, both of which prove extremely unfavourable to the 
more delicate fruits of the earth. Crossing the Massafran, 
we find ourselves again within the territory of Algiers, the 
vicinity of which, though pleasant and interesting, does not 
admit of such a description as would prove suitable to our 
pages. The recent works of French authors abound with 
details, than which nothing could be more useful to those 
who intend to live in the country, or to estimate the chances 
of a profitable commerce ; but, as they are necessarily mi- 
nute, they would require an extent of space quite inconsistent 
with our object, and might be found rather embarrassing to 
the imagination than calculated to enlighten the understand- 
ing. We may remark, however, that M. Rozet, in visiting 
the garden of Mustapha Pacha, in the neighbourhood of the 
city, observed a superb aqueduct carried across a parched 
valley, and constructed for the purpose of conveying water to 
the inhabitants of the town. The architecture is decidedly 
Moorish, presenting two tiers of arches and other peculiar- 
ities which correspond to the taste of the country ; but the 
foregoing cut delineates the structure so distinctly as to pre*- 
elude the necessity of farther description. 

In a periodical published at Paris, entitled " Annuaire de 
l'Etat d'Alger," which corresponds to our almanacs, there is 
an interesting account of the country under the French gov- 
ernment, including a view of all the institutions — civil, ec- 
clesiastical, commercial, and military^ — by means of which 
its affairs are transacted. The author, by dividing the 
southern district into Titteri and the Zaab, increases the 
number of provinces to five ; admitting that his countrymen 
occupy only three points on the coast — Algiers, Oran, and 
Bona — the first of which commands a territory of about 
nine miles in extent, while the two latter are confined to 
their respective walls. The Moors and Arabs, we are as- 
sured, are sufficiently disposed to submit to the government 
of France, because they feel the want of being protected 
against the inhabitants of the mountains. He therefore rec- 
ommends that garrisons should be placed in all the sea- 
ports ; encouragement given to such companies as would 
undertake the working of mines ; that a regular intercourse 
should be kept up with Europe by the intervention of steam- 
boats ; and, above all, that the laws should be administered 
with vigour and impartiality. An attempt at colonization has 



272 • THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



been made in the neighbourhood of Algiers, and two viU 
lages have been established at Kouba and Dely-Ibrahim, 
under the immediate auspices of the ruling authority. The 
inhabitants, who have been hitherto supported by the state, 
have received a species of civic organization, and present at 
least a model of the improved condition to which the whole 
region may yet attain. 

The climate is much more constant than that of France ; 
not being exposed to those sudden changes of temperature 
which render the latter so variable. When the warm season 
sets in, the heat continues to increase without interruption ; 
and, at the end of summer, it diminishes in the same gradual 
manner. This favourable state of the atmosphere, which is 
enjoyed in the plains eight months of the year, and the moder- 
ate warmth of the mountain-districts, render Northern Africa 
fit for the culture of a greater number of vegetables than can 
be raised in France or any other European country. In fact, 
in the less-heated parts, they can rear the same plants as are 
cultivated on the opposite shores of the Mediterranean, while 
there is reason to believe that all the productions of more 
southern, and even of tropical climates, might, in the low 
grounds near Algiers, be naturalized to the greatest advan- 
tage. For the various methods of improvement suggested 
in the little work from which we quote, and more particularly 
the scheme for draining the marshes in the great plain of the 
Metijah, we must refer the reader to an examination of its 
pages, which he will find full of intelligence and statistical 
knowledge.* 

M. Rozet concludes his work with a statement addressed 
to all civilized nations, reminding them, that in the year 1830 
a French army took Algiers, destroyed the piracy which, 
during three centuries, had desolated the world, and laid the 
first foundations of civilization in Northern Africa ; that in 
order to continue this great work, France requires the aid 
and concurrence of the other European powers ; but that 
hitherto she has made the appeal in vain, their ears being closed 
to her voice as well as to that of humanity. t 

The sentiments of this writer, in regard to the point now 
stated, have not been generally approved by his countrymen, 
who see in the plan he has proposed the -seeds of misunder- 



* Annuaire, p. 40-48, 



f Voyage, tome iii., p. 432. 



THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 273 



standing among^ the occupants of the soil, if drawn from dif- 
ferent kingdoms, and the source of a long-continued misery 
to the unhappy natives. No doubt, the civilization of North- 
ern Africa, undertaken at the common expense of enlightened 
Europe, is a grand and generous idea ; but, if attempted, it 
would soon be found impracticable ; for, whatever may be 
the mask which philanthropy assumes, self-interest is always 
at the bottom of such undertakings ; and this feeling, which 
so universally influences individuals, is seldom absent in the 
calculations even of the most liberal cabinets. The task 
would no sooner be completed, than the apparent benevolence 
from which it took its rise would resolve itself into the desire 
of aggrandizement ; and the Barbary States, redeemed from 
ignorance and despotism by the arms of Christendom, would 
become the prey of ambition, jealousy, and intrigue.* 

Perhaps there might be established with perfect safety at 
present, and without the hazard of ultimate contention, two 
great centres of civilization, the rays of which would in due 
time extend over the contiguous provinces ; one in the Al- 
gerine territory, as now occupied by the French, and the other 
in the Cyrenaica, at Derna or Ptolemeta. The Great Syrtis 
would supply the line of demarcation, and mark out the re- 
spective scenes in which the policy and arts of an instructed 
people should again form the basis of knowledge, freedom, 

* Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, Dec, 1833. In an able ar- 
ticle by Laurenaudiere, in the form of a review of M. Rozet's 
work, there are some good observations on the expediency and 
advantages of colonizing Northern Africa. He says, — " II ne 
s'agit point de civiliser la Barbarie, mais de former un etablisse- 
ment agricole, industriel, et commercial dans l'ancienne regence 
d' Alger. — Soyons assures qu'avec la perseverance, Arabes et 
Berberes finiront par se fatiguer d'attaques inutiles, et qu'un jour 
l'amour du gain les appellera vers nous ; s'ils preferent a la paix 
une guerre prolonged, leur perte est certaine. — Comme position 
militaire, Inoccupation d'Alger, de Bonne, de Bougie, et surtout 
d'Oran, est d'une haute importance pour la France. Oran, par 
ses forts magninques, travaux des Espagnols, que nous n'avons 
rien de mieux a faire que de reparer, par sa belle rade de Mers 
el Kebir, oii cent vaisseaux peuvent £tre en surete, est le seul 
point maritime important que nous puissions avoir depuis le cap 
Matifou, jusqu'au detroit de Gibraltar. En cas de guerre mari- 
time, il n'est pas besoin d'insister sur les avantages d'une sem- 
blable position." 



274 THE REGENCY OF ALGIERS. 



and social happiness. The soil and climate in this portion 
of the globe afford the means of maintaining a vast popula- 
tion, which, for many ages, could not exhaust the sources of 
affluence and comfort. A growing trade with the regions of 
the East and the South, would by degrees compensate the 
sacrifices which might be necessary in the commencement 
of a colonization so comprehensive, and exposed, at the same 
time, to the numerous difficulties inseparable from the de- 
pravity and ignorance of the actual possessors. To Ameri- 
ca, as well as to other nations which contemplate the ad- 
vantages of commerce and of a large maritime force, a com- 
manding position on the shores of the Mediterranean might 
seem not too dearly purchased at the expense of that protec- 
tion which all infant settlements require. Every traveller in 
the eastern section of Northern Africa, struck with the beauty 
of the scenery, the productive qualities of the land, the agree- 
able atmosphere, and the numerous local conveniences foi 
intercourse with the wealthiest kingdoms of the European 
continent, has recommended the project of establishing colo 
nies within the bounds of the ancient Pentapolis. 

The experience of France, it is true, has not hitherto 
proved very encouraging to others who might meditate a sim- 
ilar adventure. But colonization, it must be remembered, 
was in her case only a secondary motive, and dictated by the 
necessity of completing the objects for which the great ex- 
pedition was formed — the protection of her flag, and the per- 
manent suppression of piracy. The occupation of Algiers 
resulted as a consequence obviously arising from the triumph 
of her arms ; and the settlements which she now attempts to 
form are meant, not only to secure the possessions already 
gained, but also to render them less burdensome to th* na- 
tional revenue. 

From the facts now mentioned, it will not appear surpri- 
sing that the proceedings of the French government in Africa 
have not been marked by any regard to system, and have con- 
sequently given offence both to the natives and to the Euro- 
pean settlers. Law has not yet acquired any dominion in 
their new conquests ; every thing being regulated by procla- 
mations issued from the headquarters of the general, which, 
it is complained, do not always recognise the same principles, 
nor contribute to the attainment of the same ends. We 
have alluded to rumours, occasionally revived, that Louis 



THE REGENCY OF AIGIERS. 275 



Philippe has determined to relieve his exchequer of the 
burden entailed by this colony ; but, as some of the most 
formidable obstacles to complete success have been already 
removed, it may be presumed that the enterprising spirit of 
his subjects will encourage and enable him to persevere in 
an undertaking so essential to the security of all Christian 
states.* 

* The following notice, forwarded to London by the proper 
authority at Paris, may perhaps be regarded as an indication 
that there is no serious intention of abandoning their con- 
quest : — 

" Notice is hereby given, that, since the 18th November, 1834, 
a Revolving Light has been substituted for the old Fixed Light 
on the Mole of Algiers, continuing throughout the night, and 
the light disappearing regularly every half minute." 

On the subject of the French expedition, we may refer to the 
following books recently published :— " Appel en faveur d' Alger, 
et de l'Afrique du Nord." "Apercu Historique et Statistique 
sur la Regence d' Alger, &c, par Sidi Hamadan Ben Othman 
Khoja," and the various numbers of the Annales des Voyages. 
There is much information, too, in the works of Shaler, Poiret, 
Hoest, Norberg, Brans, Langier de Tassy, Renaudot, and De&» 
fontaines 



276 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Empire of Morocco. 

Boundaries of Morocco — Extent — Divisions — Fertility— Pro- 
ductions — Not fully cultivated — Metallic Treasures, Iron, 
Copper, Gold, and Silver — Population — History — Aglabites 
— Edrisites — Fatimites — Z unites — Hamadians — Abn-Has- 
sians — Abdallah-ben- Jasin — Almoravides — Almohades — Me- 
rinites — Oatazi — Shereef Hassan — Various Races of Men- 
Administration of Justice — Rude Government— Oppression— 
Court-dress — Arrogance of the Moors — Their patient Endu- 
rance — Equality of Rank — Mode of eating — Ceremony of Mar- 
riage — Religion— Treatment of Christians and Jews — Reve- 
nue — Melilla — Velez — Tetuan — Ceuta — Tangier — Arzillah — 
El Haratch — Mehedurna — Sallee — Rabat — Schella — Maza- 
gan — Mogadore — Agadeer — Morocco — Population — Palace — 
Fez — Edifices — Decayed State — Terodant — Mequinez — 
Royal Residence — Manners of Inhabitants. 

The geographical position of Morocco is bounded on the 
north and west by the Mediterranean and the Atlantic re- 
spectively ; on the south by the Sahara, or Great Desert ; 
and on the east by the river Moulouia, which separates it 
from the Algerine province of Tlemsan, and coincides with 
the ancient division of Numidia and Mauritania Proper. 
From the ocean to the stream now specified, the distance is 
not less than 200 miles : while the length of the empire, 
from Cape Spartel to Cape Nun, is about 550, comprehend- 
ing nearly eight degrees of latitude. It has been observed, 
however, that the Arabs beyond the southern bank of the Suz, 
though they nominally acknowledge the sovereignty of Mo- 
rocco, yet, availing themselves of their great distance from 
the seat of government, and other local advantages, pay very 
little attention to the imperial mandates.* 

* Malte Brun, vol. iv., p. 187. Conder's Geographical Dic- 
tionary, article Morocco. In the latter work, as well as in the 
Modem Traveller, there is a misprint— Lat. 28° 30' N. for lat 
28°36'N, 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



277 



The whole country comprises four grand divisions, answer- 
ing to the four kingdoms into which the territory was origi- 
nally distributed ; namely, Fez, or Fas, Morocco, Suz, and 
Tafilet, according to the following table : — 

Fez. 

Provinces. Towns. 
|. El Rif, Woojada, Melilla. 

2. El Gharb, or Algarve, - - Tetuan, Tangier, Arzillah. 

3. Beni Hassan, - - - - Sallee, Rabat. 

4. Temsena, - - - - - - DarelBeeda. 

5. Shawiya. 

6. Fez, Fez, Mequinez. 

7. Tedla. 

Morocco. 

1. Duquella, Mazagan, Azimore. 

2. Abda, , Sam. 

3 Shedma, Mogadore. 

4. Haha, or Hea. 

5. Morocco, Morocco. 

Suz. 

1. Suz, or Suza, - ?T- - Agadeer, Terodant, Irnoon. 

2. Draha. 

Tafilet. 

1. Tafilet, Tafilet. 

2. Draha. 

3. Segilmissa, Segilmissa. 

The distinguishing geographical features of the country 
are connected with the grand chain of the Atlas, by which it 
is traversed in its whole extent, and which, in the southern 
parts, attains a great elevation. Its summits, covered with 
perpetual snow, are seen at the distance of nearly 200 miles, 
and are therefore estimated to be not less than 12,000 feet 
above the level of the sea. The loftiest peaks are observed 
to the southeast of Morocco, and are known by the corrupt 
appellation of Jebel Tedla — a term supposed to have some 
reference to the more common name by which they are cel- 
ebrated in the classical works of the Greeks and Romans. 

All travellers agree in praising the fertility of the king- 
doms of Fez and Morocco, the one of which is situated to the 
north and the other to the west of the Atlas. Within such 
latitudes the climate, as might be expected, is comparatively 
mild ; while the country, generally speaking, is free from 
A a 



278 



EMPIRE OP MOROCCO. 



those marshy tracts which, in the hotter regions of the earth, 
are found to produce the most fatal diseases. In the nor- 
thern provinces the temperature is nearly the same as that 
which prevails in the Spanish peninsula, having the autumnal 
and vernal rains peculiar to the southern parts of Europe ; 
but towards the Desert, the depositions from the atmosphere 
are less copious and frequent, and the heat of course is more 
oppressive. Indeed, beyond the river Suz, little or no rain 
falls throughout the year, and it is principally on this account 
that the caravans experience so much difficulty in traversing 
the sandy waste. 

We are informed by Dr. Lempriere, that the soil, though 
varying in its nature and quality, is, when properly cultivated, 
capable of producing all the luxuries of the eastern and west- 
ern worlds. The plains of the interior uniformly consist of a 
rich black loam, which renders them fertile beyond all cal- 
culation. The mountainous parts, too, by the application of 
a little skill and capital, might be covered with most of those 
plants which delight in the elevated tracts of sultry regions ; 
including coffee, cocoa, and pimenta, with all the tropical 
fruits and delicacies on which Europeans set so high a value. 
Experience has proved that sugar, cotton, rice, and indigo, 
may be raised to much advantage and at a trifling expense 
of labour. From the slight culture which the land at present 
receives, which is merely that of burning the stubble before 
the autumnal rains, and the ploughing it about six inches 
deep, it produces at a very early season, and in most luxuri- 
ant abundance, excellent wheat and barley, Indian corn, 
peas, hemp, and a great variety of esculent vegetables. 
Among the fruits may be mentioned oranges of a very supe- 
rior quality, lemons, citrons, pomegranates, melons, olives, 
figs, grapes, almonds, dates, peaches, apricots, apples, pears, 
cherries, plums, and, in short, all the fruits to be found in the 
southern provinces of Spain and Portugal. The natives pre- 
serve their grains in " matamores" — holes made m the earth, 
lined and covered with straw, to prevent the rain from soak- 
ing through ; and in these receptacles corn may be kept five 
or six years without undergoing any material change. 

Could a proper spirit for agriculture and foreign commerce 
be introduced into the country, or, in other words, could the 
sovereign be persuaded that, by suffering his subjects to be 
enriched, he would improve his own treasury, the empire oi 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



279 



Morocco, from its convenient situation with respect to Eu- 
rope, and from the natural luxuriance of its soil, might ac- 
quire a very high political importance. But everywhere 
there are immense tracts lying waste and uncultivated, 
which, with little attention, might be converted into a source 
of almost inexhaustible wealth to the inhabitants. From this 
representation, it would scarcely be supposed credible that 
Spain, which is also a fine country and a civilized nation, 
should from time to time be obliged to remit to the bar- 
barian emperor largo sums of money, to induce him to al- 
low his subjects to export corn, as weil as most other pro- 
visions and fruits, from Tangier and Tetuan. Indeed, the 
southern provinces of Spain can hardly subsist without this 
supply.* 

We are told that the Jews in most of the towns make wine ; 
but, owing either to the grapes not being in such perfection 
a« those of Europe, or to an improper mode of preparing it, 
the flavour is very indifferent. They also distil a species of 
brandy from figs and raisins, well known in that country by 
the name of aquadent. This liquor has a disagreeable taste, 
but in point of strength is little inferior to spirits of wine. It 
is drunk very freely by the Hebrews, without being diluted, 
on their feasts or days of rejoicing ; and there are few of the 
Moors who are disposed to forego any private opportunity of 
taking their share of so exhilarating a beverage. These last 
likewise cultivate tobacco, of which there is, near Mequinez, 
a description which can be converted into a snuff not inferior 
to Maccaba. 

In the mountains of Atlas there are numerous iron-mines ; 
but, as the Moors do not understand the mode of working 
the ore, they have hitherto proved of trifling value. The 
neighbourhood of Terodant is said to abound in copper ; and 
the natives assert that, in the loftier parts of the range, there 
are also veins of gold and silver, which the emperor will not 
permit them to touch. This opinion is received by Dr. 
Lempriere with hesitation, being satisfied that, if it had any 
foundation in truth, the Berbers, who inhabit the high 
grounds, and who pay very little respect to the government 

* Tour from Gibraltar to Tangier, &c, by Wm. Lempriere, 
LL.D., p. 90. The exportation of corn has of late years been, 
totally prohibited, 



280 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



of Morocco, would long ago have availed themselves of such 
a treasure. Later writers, however, have removed all doubts 
as to the fact, that among the minerals of the Atlantic group 
are to be found distinct traces of the precious metals. 

Of the population under the nominal jurisdiction of this 
Mohammedan sovereignty, the extent has been so imperfect- 
ly ascertained, that the estimate varies from fourteen millions 
to four and a half. Mr. Jackson, who long officiated at 
Mogadore as British consul, gives the numbers as follows : — 

Cities and towns of the empire, ----- 936,000 
Morocco and Fez, west of Atlas, - - - - 10,300,000 

Nomadic tribes, north of Atlas, 3,000,000 

Tafilet, east of Atlas, - 650,000 

14,886,000 

There cannot be any doubt that this statement is greatly 
overrated, although the author is understood to have had ac- 
cess to the imperial registers, in which were inscribed all the 
names of the persons who paid Laxes. Such records, in a 
country where to number the people is a religious misde- 
meanor, must be regarded as a very equivocal ground of in- 
formation ; because there are many motives which might in- 
duce the government to augment the apparent sources of its 
revenue, which yet would have no connexion with an accu- 
rate census. Mr. Jackson was informed, for example, that 
the city of Morocco contained 270,000 inhabitants, and Fez, 
380,000 ; while more recent travellers, worthy of the utmost 
confidence, assign to the former capital only 30,000 dwellers, 
and to the latter not mGre than 70,000.* 

With respect to the history of this kingdom, viewed as a 
member of the Barbary States, it is well known that it repre- 
sents one of the monarchies founded by the Arabs during the 
period of their domination in Northern Africa. The dynasty 
of the Aglabites, whose capital at one time was Kairwan, 
and that of the Edrisites, who resided at Fez, were subjuga- 
ted by the Fatimites. These last, while they were occupied 
with the conquest of Egypt, allowed their western posses- 
sions to be seized by the Zuhites, who again were succeeded 
by the Hamadians and the Abn-Hassians in the provinces of 



* Hoest and Chenier, quoted by Make Brun, voL iv., p. 102. 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



281 



Tunis and Constantia. But, in the remoter part of their ter- 
ritory, a chief of the Lamethouni, a tribe belonging to the 
Great Desert, at present unknown, chose for the reformer of 
his people, as well as their legislator and highpriest, an ex- 
traordinary person, named Abdallah-ben-Jasin, whose man- 
ner of living and habits combined an apparent abstinence 
with the most unbounded licentiousness. This artful fanatic 
originated a sect, distinguished, in the first instance, by fu- 
rious zeal, and at all times extremely ambitious and enter- 
prising, called the Almoravides, or, more properly, the Mora- 
beth. These enthusiasts issued from the Desert like a fiery 
hurricane, threatening by turns Africa and Europe ; their leader 
assuming the title of Emir al Mumenim, or Prince of the 
Faithful. In 1052, one of their commanders built the city of 
Morocco, then called Marakash, while another invaded and 
overran the finest part of Spain. This last is celebrated for 
having gained, in 1180, the battle of Sala, near Badajos, in 
which Alphonso, the Christian king, lost his life. The same 
people expelled from that country the dynasty of the Ommia- 
des ; and it was during the confusion which preceded the fall 
of this family that some of the rival claimants called the Al- 
moravides to their aid. These Africans, like the first inva- 
ders, advanced with the strength and enterprising spirit of a 
new race ; nor could the Christians have made head against 
them, if they had not found allies among the Moorish kings, 
who, at this time, established shortlived sovereignties ; and 
who, when the Morabeth were driven out, became themselves 
an easy prey. 

At the same time, the rule of these enthusiasts, whose ob- 
jects were not less political than religious, extended over 
Algiers, the Sahara, Timbuctoo, and Soudan ; but, in the 
year 1146, sectaries of a more austere character, designated 
the Almohades, usurping the good fortune which had so long 
attended the disciples of the son of Jasin, invaded the empire 
of the West, and reduced it to submission. Like the others, 
they endeavoured to establish the faith of their prophet in 
the southern kingdoms of Europe, and fought several obsti- 
nate battles in the plains of Andalusia ; but, failing in this 
attempt, they received some compensation in the success 
with which they carried their tenets and their arms along the 
northern coast of Africa, even as far as the gates of Tripoli. 
The power, too, founded on fanaticism, was doomed to be 
A a 2 



282 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



undermined by the same active spirit from which it had 
sprung. Intestine discord, the usual effect of religious ex- 
citement, laid the Almohades open, in their turn, to the as- 
sault of a more recent class of schismatics, among whom 
were the Merinites, who, about the middle of the thirteenth 
century, gained possession of the kingdoms of Fez and Mo- 
rocco. This tribe, however, more desirous to confirm than 
to extend their dominion, made no attempt to re-establish the 
great empire of Mogreb, the mighty sovereignty of the West ; 
though this precaution did not entirely prevent the evil 
which was so justly apprehended. Hordes, of unknown 
name and origin, continued to issue from the Eastern Desert, 
animated with warmer zeal and fortified with higher preten- 
sions ; and, as such ardour is better suited for subduing king- 
doms than for perpetuating a regular authority, the old set- 
tlers were uniformly seen to give place to the more modern 
fanatics. The power of the Beni Merini was accordingly 
overthrown by the Oataziy an obscure race, who envied their 
greatness and aspired to supreme dominion ; and, as this 
revolution coincided with certain efforts on the part of the 
Portuguese to extend the Christian faith to the shores of Af- 
rica, the stability of the Moorish kingdom was menaced at 
once from two opposite quarters. This emergency in their 
affairs induced them to invite a shereef, resident in Tafilet, 
named Hassan, who, as one of the posterity of the prophet, 
was entitled to the sovereignty of a Mussulman state. He 
succeeded completely in his enterprise ; and having subdued 
the oarbarous zealots whose phrensy or ambition had shaken 
the empire of Mogreb, he placed on the throne his own dy- 
nasty, which has exercised the regal office till the present 
day ; combining with the dignity of sultan the more sacred 
distinction which attaches to their pedigree as the progeny 
of Mohammed.* 

Various races of men, we are told, now occupy the coun- 
try under the rule of his present majesty ; — the Berbers, 
primitive troglodytes of Mount Atlas, and the parent stock of 
the Guanches found in the Western Isles ; the nomadic 
Arabs of the great plain of Morocco ; the emigrants from 
Spain, who possess the cities, for which mode of life nature 

* Malte Brun, vol. iv., p. 187. Keatinge, Travels in Europe 
and Africa, p. 199. 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



283 



seems to have destined them ; the Jews, who fill the interior 
departments of commerce ; and the negroes, who appear to 
have gradually removed from the more glowing regions of 
the South. These several denominations of human beings, 
who are careful to trace their origin to different sources, are 
dispersed from the shores of the Mediterranean to Tafilet, 
the capital of which is eighteen days' journey from the city 
of Morocco, and to Suz, of which the boundaries are sup- 
posed to extend to the vicinity of the Niger. * 

The subjects of this empire, it is maintained, are still 
slaves to an absolute despot, and strangers to the benefit of 
fixed laws, their only rule being the will of the sultan. 
Wherever this prince chooses his residence, he distributes 
justice in person ; for which purpose he generally holds a 
court twice a week, or oftener, according to circumstances, 
in his hall of audience, graced with the full solemnity of a 
supreme tribunal. Here all complaints are addressed to him ; 
every person has the freest access ; and he hears with pa- 
tience each individual who has a cause to defend, whether 
natives or foreigners, man or woman, rich or poor. Distinc- 
tions of rank are not regarded ; every one being entitled, 
without hinderance or embarrassment, to approach the com- 
mon sovereign. Sentence is promptly pronounced, always 
with the authority of an absolute and final decision, but gen- 
erally, it is admitted, in the spirit of the most impartial 
equity. 

With the exception, however, of these imperial audiences, 
the administration of affairs is marked by disorder, rapine, 
and violence. The governors of provinces have the title of 
caliph or lieutenant, of pacha or kaid ; and everywhere 
combine judicial with executive power to such an extent, 
that they remit to the judges no case which does not present 
some peculiar difficulty. In some of the towns, and especially 
in Fez, there are cadis, or independent magistrates, who are 
invested with great authority as interpreters of the law ; but 
it is remarked, that as the governors and judges are usually 
oppressed by the sultan, they, in their turn, harass and defraud 
the people. The lowest officer pillages in his master's name 
and as the wealth thus acquired falls ultimately into the im- 
perial treasury, the crime is overlooked in consideration o» 



* Keatinge, p. 201. 



284 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



the contingent advantage. The sovereign can deprive any 
one of his subjects, however high his rank, of every thing 
belonging to him, except what is strictly necessary to prevent 
starvation ; and this exercise of despotic power is not unfre- 
quently directed against those who have amassed riches in 
the discharge of their official duties. The confiscated sums 
are said to pass into the common coffers of the Mussulmans, 
and this is the only account of them that is either asked or 
given. The consequences of such a system may be easily 
conceived. The people, suspicious, cruel, and perfidious, 
respect no sort of obligation ; their universal aim is to plun- 
der one another ; no confidence, no social tie exists among 
them, and scarcely even any feeling of affection beyond the 
narrowest limits of domestic life.* 

Mr. Jackson informs us, that the people belonging to the 
court have a particular dress, never appearing before the em- 
peror in a hayk, but in a silham, or large cloak of white 
woollen cloth ; and in presence of a pacha, or governor, the 
hayk is thrown over the shoulders, which at other times hangs 
loosely on the cap — a mode of salutation similar to that of 
taking off the hat among Europeans. 

The pride and arrogance everywhere ascribed to the 
Moors, appear in the strongest colours within the dominions 
of Morocco ; for though they live in the most deplorable state 
of ignorance, slavery, and superstition, they esteem them- 
selves the first people in the world, and contemptuously brand 
all others with the epithet of barbarian. It is not denied, 
however, that some of the better-educated among them are 
courteous and polite, and even possessed of great suavity of 
manners. They are affable and communicative where they 
repose confidence ; and if in conversation the subject of dis- 
cussion be serious, and the parties become warm in dispute, 
they have usually the prudence to withdraw, in a very deli- 
cate manner, the contested point, and to substitute another 
on which the current of opinion may flow more gently. They 
are slow to take offence ; but, when irritated, they are both 
noisy and implacable. There is a noble trait in their char^ 
acters which ought not to be omitted — their patience and 
resolution when visited by misfortune ; they never despair ; 
no bodily suffering, and no calamity, however great, will make 



* Malts Brim, p. 192. 



EMPIRE OP MOROCCO. 



285 



them complain ; they are resigned in all things to the will of 
Heaven, and wait in tranquil hope for an improvement of 
their condition. It is a singular point of etiquette, among a 
people who abide with so much firmness the decrees of fate, 
that the word " death" is never mentioned in the hearing of 
the sultan. When it is necessary to announce to him the 
demise of any person, they say, " he has fulfilled his destiny 
on which the monarch gravely utters this pious expression, 
" God be merciful to him." 

It is not unworthy of remark, too, that the Moors are all 
equal by birth, and are not acquainted with any difference of 
rank but such as may be derived from official employments. 
Hence, the meanest man in the nation may aspire without 
presumption to a matrimonial connexion with the highest * 
family not ennobled by descent from the prophet ; and so 
great in Morocco are the effects of accident or caprice, that 
the peasant, in the course of a day, may change places with 
the governor of a province. 

This people, it has been observed, are, for the most part, 
more cleanly in their persons than in their clothes. They 
wash their hands before every meal, which, as they use no 
knives or forks, they eat with their fingers. Half a dozen 
persons sit round a large bowl of cuscusou, and after the 
usual ejaculation, " In the name of God," each puts his hand 
into the dish, and taking up the food, throws it by a dexter- 
ous jerk into his mouth, without suffering the fingers to touch 
the lips. However repugnant this may be to our ideas of 
cleanliness, yet, the hand being always washed and never 
touching the mouth in the act of eating, these folks are by no 
means so dirty as Europeans have sometimes hastily imagin- 
ed. They have no chairs or tables in their houses, but sit 
crosslegged on carpets and cushions ; and at meals the 
bowl or dish containing the repast is placed on the floor.* 

When a Mussulman is inclined to marry, he makes in- 
quiry of some confidential servant respecting the person of 
her mistress, and if he receive a satisfactory description of 
the lady, an opportunity is sometimes procured to see her at 
the window or some other place. This interview generally 
decides whether the parties are to continue their regards ; 
and if the young man be satisfied with the attractions of the 



* Account of the Empire of Morocco, p. 147. 



286 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



maiden, he takes occasion to communicate his wishes to her 
father, and makes his proposal for marriage. Of the wedding- 
ceremony various accounts have been given by different 
authors. According to Mr. Jackson, whose acquaintance 
with the habits of the people was minute and accurate, the 
bridegroom is mounted on a horse with his face covered, sur- 
rounded by his friends, who run their horses and discharge 
their muskets, as if they meant to attack him. The kettle- 
drum, the triangle, and a rude kind of flute, form the band 
of music ; while the attendants of the young couple dance 
and jump about, twirling their firelocks in the. air, and other- 
wise expressing their satisfaction. This boisterous mirth 
being finished, the parties go to the house of feasting, where 
the evening is spent in great conviviality, not without a certain 
violation of that statute in their religious code which prohibits 
the use of strong drink. It is not expected that the woman 
should have a fortune or a settlement ; but if the father be 
rich, he generally gives a dowry, and a quantity of pearls, 
rubies, and diamonds — it being understood that this shall al- 
ways remain her own property, and be returned with her 
should she be separated from her husband. 

The tenets of Islamism are well known to constitute the 
national religion of Morocco. Some years ago, a sect sprang 
up who professed a species of deism more pure than that 
maintained by the Mohammedan creed, inasmuch as in their 
symbol of faith they left out the name of the prophet. The 
declaration of belief by which they wished to be distinguish- 
ed, comprehended nothing more complex than the following 
proposition : — " There is no God but the true God." His 
imperial majesty, however, hostile even to the appearance of, 
innovation, discountenanced the authors of this refined Uni- 
tarianism ; and, as might be expected, under a government 
so little disposed to temporize, he had soon the satisfaction to 
learn that the schismatics were again favoured with more or- 
thodox views. But, notwithstanding this vigilance on the 
part of the sovereign, every religion is tolerated which main- 
tains the unity of the Divine Being, whatever may be the 
modifications with which this leading doctrine is expounded. 
In Morocco itself there are Roman Catholic monasteries, as 
well as at Mogadore, Mequinez, and Tangier ; though the 
fnunks are closely watched, and occasionally exposed to some 
Vexations, The Jews, on the contrary, who are exceedingly 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



287 



numerous, and have dwellings even in the valleys of the 
Atlas, are treated with the most revolting inhumanity ; their 
situation, both civik^and moral, presenting a very singular 
phenomenon. On the one hand, their industry, their address, 
and their intelligence, make them masters of all the branches 
of ade, and even of manufactures ; they direct the royal 
coinage ; they levy the duties on exports and imports ; and 
officiate as interpreters, agents, and commissioners. On the 
other hand, they experience the most odious treatment 
and ill usage. They are prohibited from writing in Arabic, 
and even from learning the characters ; because no profana- 
tion could be esteemed greater than the sight of a Jew read- 
ing the Koran. Their women, too, are forbidden to wear 
any green article of clothing, and are not allowed to veil 
more than one half of the face. In passing a mosque, the 
persecuted Israelite must uncover his feet, and remove his 
slippers to a respectful distance ; while a Moor may enter a 
synagogue without ceremony, and even insult the Rabbins.* 

The revenue of the empire has been estimated at a million 
of piasters, derived partly from the customs and partly from 
the tithe of land. The army, which is equally ignorant of 
discipline and tactics, consists of about 36,000 men, of whom 
not less than two thirds are negroes. The navy, which may 
amount to fifty vessels, was in former days almost entirely 
employed in piracy ; the situation of the larger ports giving 
marauders every advantage against the commerce of Europe. 

Having exhibited a general view of the constitution and 
manners of the Western Moors, we shall now present a brief 
description of their principal cities. Proceeding westward 
from the boundaries of Algiers, we come to the town of 
Melilla, the Rissadirium of antiquity, which is in possession 
of the Spaniards, who still maintain a small garrison. In 
1774, Sidi Mohammed, the emperor of Morocco, made an in- 
effectual attempt to reduce it. Having no trade, it is now 
remarkable for nothing but its fine honey. Velez, or Belis, 
a village placed between two mountains, somewhat nearer 
the straits, is supposed to have been founded by the Cartha- 
ginians, and to have possessed at one period a considerable 
degree of importance. The vicinity abounds in excellent 
timber, which, under an enlightened government, might bs 



* Account of Morocco, p. 139, 



288 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



applied to the purposes of shipbuilding— a use to which it was 
not unfrequently devoted by the corsairs along the shore, be- 
fore the Europeans obtained a pern%hent footing in their 
country. 

The mouth of the river Busega indicates to the traveller 
that he has arrived in the neighbourhood of Tetuan, a place 
still of some consequence, and at a former epoch very popu- 
lous. It is pleasantly situated upon a rising ground between 
two ranges of high mountains, one of them constituting a 
part of the Lesser Atlas. Being only five miles distant from 
the Mediterranean, it commands a splendid view of that sea ; 
and the valleys below are variegated with gardens, planta- 
tions of olives and vineyards, and ornamented with the fine 
stream just mentioned, which takes its course through its 
centre. The town is of considerable extent, and its walls 
are flanked with square towers, on which a few guns are 
mounted ; but the streets are narrow and filthy, and many 
of them, like those in Algiers, are nearly arched over by the 
houses. The Caisseria, or market-place, is filled with shops, 
containing a great variety of valuable articles, both of Euro- 
pean and African workmanship. Fez supplies the inhabi- 
tants, not only with the manufactures of that city, but also 
with goods brought thither from the Algerine States, Tunis, 
Alexandria, and Timbuctoo, by means of the annual caravans. 
In Gibraltar and Spain are procured certain commodities 
sent from England, Germany, and the Peninsula, which are 
exchanged for the produce of the country, or for the rarer 
merchandise of the lands beyond the Sahara.* 

The port of Tetuan is situated about two miles from the 
sea, and is named Morteen. At this place, however, as we 
are informed by Dr. Lempri£re, there is only a single house 
used for the purpose of collecting the customs. As the 
mouth of the river is now nearly choked up with sand, it ad- 
mits only of small craft ; and even these can proceed no 
farther than the station now described, where there are usu- 
ally some of the imperial galleys anchored for the winter. 
The estuary is defended by a high square tower, on which 
are mounted twelve pieces of cannon. Till the year 1770, 
Tetuan was the residence of the European consuls ; but an 
Englishman having by accident shot or wounded a native, th© 



* Lempridre, p. 430. Jackson, p. 92. 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



289 



emperor swore by his beard that no Christian charge d'affaires 
should dwell there any more.* 

Ceuta, which is at present in possession of Spain, was 
heretofore the capital of Hispania Transfretana, and occupied 
by the Moors. It was afterward taken by the Arabs ; and 
again, in 1415, reduced by the Portuguese, who, in their 
turn, saw it pass into the hands of their neighbours. Being 
a commanding position, it acquired great value in the eyes of 
the maritime states, as affording the means of checking the 
Barbary pirates ; and to the Spaniards in particular its im- 
portance has not been diminished by the loss of Gibraltar. 
Various efforts have been made by the sovereigns of Morocco 
to recover it ; but as it is almost impregnable towards the 
land, a military force without the aid of a fleet must for ever 
prove unavailing. 

The whole coast, from hence to Tangier, being about a 
day's journey, is rugged and interspersed with projecting 
cliffs. This town, anciently called Tinjis and Tingia, was 
first possessed by the Romans, next by the Goths, and was, 
by Count Julian, given up to the Mohammedans. In the fif- 
teenth century it was taken by the King of Portugal, who 
gave it as a marriage-portion with his daughter Catherine to 
Charles the Second of England ; but the subjects of the lat- 
ter, finding the expense of keeping it to exceed greatly any 
advantage which might be derived from its nossession, 
abandoned it in 1684, after destroying the mole and fortifica- 
tions. It still retains some batteries in good condition facing 
the bay ; at the bottom of which are a river and the remains 
of an old bridge, which, even if it had stood till now, would 
have been entirely superseded by the accumulation of sand 
in the wonted channel of the current. Viewed from the sea- 
side, Tangier presents a regular aspect. Its amphitheatrical 
situation, its whitened houses, the walls surrounding the 
town, the castle built on a hill, the consuls' residences, and 
the grand sweep of the coast, compose an interesting picture ; 
but as soon as the streets are entered the illusion ceases, and 
the visiter finds himself surrounded with every thing that 
characterizes the most squalid wretchedness.! 

Doubling Cape Spartel, the waves of the Atlantic are seen 
washing the little town of Arzillah, called by the Carthagin- 



* Tackson, p. 92. f Travels of Ali Bey, vol. i., p. 12* 

B b 



)c90 EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 

ians Zillia, and by the Romans, who had a garrison there, 
Julia Traducta. After passing through the hands of the 
Goths and Portuguese, it came ultimately into the possession 
of the Moors, who are its masters at the present day. It has 
no trade, and appears entirely destitute of wealth and indus- 
try ; affording shelter only to a few miserable inhabitants, who 
acknowledge a government more ready to depress than be- 
friend them. Leaving tin's decaying village, we advance 
towards El Haratch or Larache, situated at the mouth of the 
river Kos or Lucos. Here are more distinct remains of pros- 
perity ; while the defences and the commerce of the port in- 
dicate that the science of Europe must have aided in its for- 
tifications. There are several mosques, too, and a handsome 
bazar, surrounded with stone piazzas ; but it is not conceal- 
ed that these structures rather indicate what the place must 
have formerly been, than correspond to what it now is. The 
accumulation of sand, too, at the mouth of the river, threat- 
ens it with the loss of the little trade which it. still enjoys, 
Mr. Jackson tells us that in 1610 it was given up to Spain, 
and, in 1689, retaken by the Emperor Muley Ismael. He 
adds, that there is an excellent market-place in the town ; 
that the castle which commands the entrance of the road is 
in good repair ; that the guns are well mounted ; and that it 
is farther strengthened by several batteries on the banks of 
the stream. The French entered it in 1765 ; but by a feint 
of the Moors they were induced to go too far up, when they 
were surrounded by superior numbers, and fell victims to 
their own impetuosity.* 

At the distance of sixty -five miles towards the south stands 
Meheduma, the Mamora of Europeans, on the banks of the 
Seboo. It is situated on an eminence, close to the river, and 
described as a poor neglected place, the inhabitants and fer- 
rymen of which gain a livelihood by catching a species of 
salmon — a fish found in great quantities between autumn and 
the spring. But the contiguous country is much more re- 
markable than the town, consisting of an immense plain, said 
to extend eighty miles into the interior, as smooth as a bowl- 
ing-green, covered with the richest verdure, and diversified 
by three large fresh-water lakes, which are adorned with 
trees and shrubs, and well stocked with waterfowl. Tbe 



* Jackson, p. 96, 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



291 



district was formerly possessed by a thick population, but the 
incalculable number of moschetoes, gnats, and other annoying 
insects, have compelled the people to remove. There are a 
few insulated spots in the largest lake, which is not less than 
twenty miles in length, where are built sanctuaries for the 
marabouts, who here, as well as elsewhere, are greatly ven- 
erated by the natives. 

Sallee, celebrated as the resort of the most savage order 
of corsairs, is built on the northern bank of a river formed by 
the confluence of the Bubegreg and Wieroo. It is a walled 
town, and rather strongly fortified ; but the navigation of 
the estuary is becoming every day more impeded by the 
usual obstructions of sand and mud, and it will, in a short 
time, cease to answer the purposes of commerce. On the 
opposite side of the stream stands Rabat, which is rather 
larger than the other, and was once the seat of several Euro- 
pean factories, to which were confided the commercial inter- 
ests of their respective nations. On an adjoining eminence 
are seen the remains of an old castle, erected by the Sultan 
El Mansour, in the twelfth century, some bomb-proof vaults 
remarkable for their strength, and the remains of a battery 
meant to defend the port. The same monarch is reputed to 
have built a famous mosque, the roof of which was supported 
by 360 columns of marble ; many fragments of which are 
found scattered in the neighbourhood. At a little distance 
is a large tower, about 180 feet in height, and consisting of 
seven stories, which is said to have been constructed about 
five hundred years ago. It is ascended by an inclined plane, 
instead of a stair, so that a person may reach the top on horse- 
back ; while the path has been formed of a cement so hard 
as to defy not oniy the dissolving power of time, but even 
the more direct application of the hammer and pickaxe.* 

On the eastern side of Rabat is a walled town named 
Schella, supposed to be the metropolis of the Carthaginian 
colonies, anciently founded by Hanno on this border of the 
Atlantic. It is esteemed sacred ground by the Mussulmans, 
is held in much veneration, and protected with great care 
against the approach of a Christian. Passing Fedalla and 
Dar el Beeda, neither of which presents any thing worthy of 
observation, we come to Mazagan, a town built by the Por- 

* Jackson's Morocco, p. 100. 



292 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



tuguese, who, in 1769, were induced to evacuate it as no 
longer worthy of their care. As Oualida and Saffi have 
nothing which could interest the modern reader, we omit all 
allusion to their mouldering walls and decayed dwellings, in 
order to reach Mogadore, the usual residence of a British 
consul. This port is built on the brink of the ocean, defend- 
ed from the encroachment of the waves by a ledge of rocks, 
and separated from the cultivated country by a belt of sand. 
At spring-tides it is nearly surrounded by the swelling wa- 
ters, which, after attaining a certain height, meet with no 
obstruction on the flat shore. There are two towns, or rather 
a citadel and an outer town ; the former containing the cus- 
tom-house, the treasury, the residence of the kaid, and 
the houses of the foreign merchants and civil officers. The 
Jews, not enjoying any of the distinctions now mentioned, are 
obliged to live in the latter, which is also walled in and pro- 
tected by sufficient batteries. The Emperor Sidi Moham- 
med, to impress on the minds of the people his desire to make 
Mogadore the principal commercial port on the ocean, ordered 
the pacha and other depositaries of his power to bring him 
mortar and stones, while he, with his own hands, began to build 
a fortification, which is still to be seen on the rocks west of 
the town ; and with the view of encouraging the traders to 
erect substantial dwellings, he not only gave them ground, 
but allowed them to ship produce free of duty until their ex- 
penses were reimbursed. This is the only station which 
maintains a regular intercourse with Europe, as it continues, 
in some degree, to profit by the immunities originally confer- 
red by his imperial highness. 

The last port in the Atlantic dominions of Morocco is Aga- 
deer, the Santa Cruz of some authors, and the Guerguessem 
of Leo Africanus. The town, which stands on an elevated 
position, has great natural strength, and its walls display 
a few mounted guns ; while the bay is esteemed the safest in 
the empire for large vessels, being sheltered on all sides from 
dangerous winds. It was fortified in 1503 by Emanuel, king 
of Portugal, but taken by the Moors about thirty years after- 
ward ; and continuing in the possession of these last, it might 
have attained to considerable importance, had not the refrac- 
tory conduct of one of its governors provoked the emperor in 
1773 to dismantle it, and transfer its commercial privileges to 
Mogadore. 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



293 



Of Morocco itself we have already traced the origin to the 
eleventh century, when the foundations were laid by Yussuf 
Teshfin, the chief of a tribe who occupied the lands between 
Mount Atlas and Tafilet. The surrounding country is at 
once beautiful and romantic ; the Alpine range, which ter- 
minates the view, contrasting in a very striking manner with 
the luxuriance of the fields and gardens in the neighbourhood 
of the capital. The iily-of-the-valley, lupins, fleurs-de-lis, 
roses, jonquilles, mignionette, jasmines, violets, the orange and 
citron-flowers, and many others, grow there spontaneously ; 
and in the months of March and April the air in the morning 
is strongly perfumed with their grateful and delicious odours. 
Among the fruits are oranges of the finest flavour, figs of vari- 
ous kinds, melons, apricots, peaches, grapes, dates, plums, 
and pomegranates.* 

Ali Bey asserts that the city, which once contained about 
seven hundred thousand inhabitants, had not, when he was 
there in the beginning of the present century, more than 
thirty thousand. The walls which surrounded it have sur- 
vived the ravages of time and of man, and give some proof of 
the former splendour of the place ; they embrace a circum- 
ference of about seven miles, the interior of which is covered 
with ruins or converted into gardens. The remainder con' 
stitutes the present^ town ; but, though the houses are in a 
line, and form streets, there are many spaces left unoccupied. 
There are several public squares or market-places, which, if 
they were paved and kept clean, would display some degree 
of magnificence ; but, in this neglected state, they are only 
remarkable for mud when it rains, and for dust during the dry 
weather. The mosques are large, and have even a certain 
measure of grandeur in their construction ; though, as the 
architecture is of different ages, their appearance carries not 
a little offence to the eye of taste. 

The palace of the sultan is situated out of town towards 
the south, and is composed of a vast group of buildings. 
Besides the apartments for his majesty, his sons, and the 
numerous females who make part of the establishment, it 
contains several gardens. The different officers belonging 
to the court have also their separate lodgings ; to which are 
added two mosques, and immense yards or squares, where 



* Jackson-, p. 118. 
B b 2 



294 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



the emperor holds his public audiences, giving to the whole 
the semblance of a royal city ; and which, in point of fact, 
occupies a circumference of about three miles. 

This unfortunate capital no longer enjoys the benefits of 
trade, commerce, or manufactures ; the arts and sciences are 
entirely forgotten ; and, in short, says Ali Bey, it would be 
impossible to believe such an astonishing and rapid decline, 
if it were not proved by its large walls, its immense masses 
of ruins, and the great number of conduits now become use- 
less, and its vast churchyards.* 

Fez, another metropolis of this barbaric empire, displays 
the same symptoms of waste, misgovernment, and ignorance. 
It is situated on the slope of several hills, which surround it 
on every side except the north and northeast ; affording, as 
it has been supposed, the usual indifferent lodging to about a 
hundred thousand human beings, only the one half of what 
they were prior to a late visitation of the plague. Like Al- 
giers, its streets are dark and gloomy, because they are not 
only so narrow that two horsemen can hardly ride together, 
but also because the houses, which are very high, have a pro- 
jection on the first floor, which intercepts much of the light. 
This inconvenience is increased by certain galleries or pas- 
sages connecting the upper part of the buildings, and by the 
high walls which, at various distances, are raised across the 
streets as if to support the houses on either side. These 
walls have arched passages, like the Bab el Ouad in the city 
just named, which are shut at night ; the town being thereby 
divided into several quarters, and all communication between 
them entirely precluded until sunrise, t 

It is well known that this city, the most celebrated in 
"Western Barbary, was founded in the year 786, by Idris, a 
descendant of the great prophet, and is divided into two 
parts, called the old and new, or Fez Jedide and Fez el Ba- 
lee. It is not so extensive as Morocco, but, the buildings 
being more lofty and spacious, it contains a greater number 
of inhabitants. The houses have flat roofs, ingeniously 
worked in wood and covered with cement, on which the fam- 
ilies spread carpets in summer, to enjoy the cool breezes of 
evening ; a small turret containing a room or two is also 
erected upon them for the use of the ladies, who resort 



* Travels of Ali Bey, vol. i., p. 157. f Ali Bey, p. 67 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 295 

thither for amusement and recreation. There is a great num- 
ber of mosques, sanctuaries, and other public edifices, about 
fifty of which are very splendid, being ornamented with a 
kind of marble unknown in Europe, procured in the Atlas 
Mountains. The hospitals which are mentioned by early 
writers must have fallen greatly into decay, as there are now 
very few remaining. In these the poor are fed, but no med- 
ical officer attends them ; women alone minister to the sick 
and infirm till they recover, or death terminates their suffer- 
ings. There are nearly 200 caravansaries, or inns, each con- 
taining from fifty to a hundred apartments. But, except 
water and a mat, nothing is furnished for the accommodation 
of the guest, who must find food and bedclothes elsewhere.* 

Every trade or profession has a street or section of the 
town allotted to it. In one place are shops occupied by no- 
taries or scribes ; another has its stationers ; a third is restrict- 
ed to waxchandlers, and a fourth to shoemakers ; while fruit, 
bread, and meat, are sold in their respective localities. The 
markets for provisions are very numerous, and well sullied 
with victuals, dressed or undressed ; being in this respect not 
inferior to the majority of the large cities in Europe. 

It is not concealed, by the most enthusiastic travellers, that 
the ruins and mud by which the streets of Fez are encum- 
bered render them extremely disagreeable. The houses, too, 
are so miserably decayed, that many of them are actually 
propped up ; almost all are without windows ; and the few 
of these which meet the eye are not larger than a common 
sheet of paper. The doors likewise have a mean and shabby 
appearance. Behind these wretched walls, it is true, are 
occasionally concealed mansions, the inside of which presents 
something like comfort and elegance. The ceiling, the doors 
of the rooms, and the arcades of the courtyard, are painted 
in various colours, and even overlaid with gold and silver ; 
the floors being decorated with Dutch tiles, or with marble 
of different teints, arranged so as to form rather pleasing de- 
signs.! 

Terodant is known as the metropolis of the south, and was 
formerly that of the kingdom of Susa. It still possesses a 
noble palace, adorned with gardens containing the most de- 
licious fruits ; but, generally speaking, it has lost its trade, 



♦Jackson, p. 131. 



t Ali Bey, p. 67. 



296 



EMPIRE OP MOROCCO, 



population, and the consequence which once belonged to it 
as a provincial capital. Its reputation is now confined to the 
manufacture of a superior kind of saltpetre, and the prepara- 
tion of leather used for saddles. 

Mequinez, the second city of Morocco, stands in a beauti- 
ful valley about sixty miles from Sallee, and is surrounded 
by gentle eminences combining all the attractions of nature. 
It owes its extent and importance to the policy of Sultan 
Muley Ismael, who, when he had secured to himself the un- 
disputed sovereignty of the small kingdoms which now con- 
stitute the empire, resolved to strengthen the northern divis- 
ion of it by erecting a walled town fit to receive a competent 
garrison. At the south end he built a palace, forming an 
immense quadrangle, and enclosing a number of gardens, 
well watered by streams from the adjacent country. In the 
centre of this enclosure is the harem, which, again, surrounds 
a small paradise planted with trees, and invested by a gallery- 
supported on massy columns. This royal residence is ren- 
dered more spacious by being constructed altogether on the 
ground-floor. The rooms are long and lofty, but narrow, 
being only twelve feet wide, while they are eighteen high 
and twentv-five in length. The walls are inlaid with glazed 
tiles of bright colours, which give an air of coolness to the 
apartments ; and the light is communicated by means of two 
large folding-doors, which are opened more or less according 
to the degree of clearness required in the interior. Between 
the different suites of rooms are courts regularly paved with 
square pieces of black and white marble, and in the centre 
of some of them are seen fountains composed of the same 
rich material. 

The inhabitants, whose manners are mild and courteous, 
compared at_]east to those in any other part of the empire, 
are also very hospitable ; taking pleasure in inviting stran- 
gers to their gardens and a share of their entertainments. 
The women, it is added, are handsome without exception ; 
and to a fair complexion, with expressive black eyes and 
dark hair, they unite a suavity of disposition rarely experi- 
enced in the most polished cities of Europe.* 

As the religion, government, military system, and admin- 
istration of justice, present in Morocco features very similar 



* Jackson* p. 129. 



EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. 



297 



to those which prevail throughout the other states of Nor- 
thern Africa, we purposely abstain from details that would 
necessarily lead to repetition. We now, therefore, conclude 
the geographical notices which the history of this portion of 
the globe has naturally suggested, as connected more espe- 
cially with our retrospect of the greatness and magnificence 
to which some parts of it attained under the Roman empe- 
rors and the earliest of the sultans. But the view of its 
actual condition would not be complete did we omit to make 
a few observations on the productive powers of its soil and 
climate, and on the commerce which might enrich the inhab- 
itants, and restore to them in some measure the blessings of 
civilization.* 

* In our search for materials we have discovered that there 
is in the course of publication at Florence, a " History of the 
Empire of Morocco," in 8vo., by the Chevalier Graberg de Ham- 
so, many years Swedish consul at Tangier and Tripoli. It is 
to be illustrated with an excellent map, the best yet engraved 
of that country ;. as the author has taken the outline of the one 
published by the Geographical Society of London, 1831, and 
has joined to it all the information he was able to collect during 
some years' residence at Tangier. Aided by a perfect knowl- 
edge of Arabic, the Chevalier Graberg is well known in the lit- 
erary world as the author of many works, and especially as the 
translator of the celebrated Arabic MS. of the historian Ibnou 
Khaldour, published in the third volume of the Transactions of 
the Asiatic Societv of London.— Nautical Magazine, vol. iii., 
p. 663. 



29$ COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATE8. 



CHAPTER X. 

Commerce of the Barbary Stales. 

Benefits expected from a Trade with Africa — Plan of Bonaparte 
and Talleyrand to raise in it colonial Produce— French have 
always maintained Commercial Relations with Barbary — The 
Fertility of Central Africa — The Congo and Niger — Market 
at Bengazi — Ancient Trade of the Genoese — Exports from 
Tunis — Imports — Commercial Lists of that Pachalic — Trade 
diminished — Bad Policy of the Bey — System of Licenses — 
Coins, Weights, and Measures at Tunis— Trade of Algiers 
carried on by the Corsairs — Imports resemble those of Tunis 
— Manufactures and Exports — Mode of Shipbuilding — Pres- 
ent State of Commerce at Algiers — Trade with France, Eng- 
land, Italy, Spain, and Tunis — Trade of Morocco— Mogadore 
— Total Value of Exports and Imports— Intercourse with 
Negro Nations — Coins, Weights, and Measures — Physical 
Advantages of Northern Africa — Hopes of Improvement. 

The attention of Europe has at various times been excited 
by the prospect of numerous benefits to be derived from a 
trade with Africa, more especially through the ports situated 
on its northern shores. During the long period occupied by 
the revolutionary war, when the French were excluded from 
the West India Islands, and made dependant on Great Britain 
for colonial produce, various schemes were agitated in the 
councils of Bonaparte, with the view of supplying this defi- 
ciency by establishing settlements in the Barbary States. It 
is said that Talleyrand suggested a plan for raising on the 
southern coasts of the Mediterranean, and by employing, too, 
the labour of the native inhabitants, sugar, coffee, cotton, and 
all the other commodities which are usually conveyed to 
Europe, at a great expense, from the tropical climates of 
either hemisphere. But the toils and hazards of a still loftier 
ambition withdrew the thoughts of the emperor from the col- 
onization of Africa, until it was too late to make the attempt ; 
and that project, with others of a less practicable nature, he 
left to his successors, who, with diminished means and per- 



COMMERCE OF THE BAR BAR Y STATES. 299 



haps with less able instruments, have not failed to realize it, 
at least in part.* 

It is believed that the recommendation of Tajleyrand was 
never entirely forgotten, even during the most tranquil times 
of the Bourbon restoration. No one could be blind to the 
hazard that the course of events was likely, at no distant day, 
to deprive all the European nations of their transatlantic 
possessions ; and that the luxuries in which the people had 
been long accustomed to indulge, must be sought in some 
other quarter of the globe. The history of St. Domingo gave 
a lesson to the politicians of Paris too impressive to be 
neglected ; and hence the lively interest which they have 
displayed in every design which has had for its object the 
occupation of Northern Africa. These reasons, viewed in 
their several bearings, may perhaps justify the conclusion, 
founded on other considerations, that the expedition of 1830 
was not altogether confined to the chastisement of the dey, 
nor to the mere suppression of his marauding practices. 

The French, as has been already observed, had succeeded, 
by treaty or otherwise, in obtaining certain privileges both 
at Tunis and Algiers, which for many years gave them a 
great advantage over all competitors in the traffic of that 
country. Their establishment at La Cala was to them the 
source of much wealth and influence, and they complained 
bitterly when, towards the end of the last century, the trade 
was opened to other nations on a more liberal principle. 

Nor can it be concealed that commercial views have all 
along mixed to a greater or less extent with those more gen- 
erous motives, which, from time to time, have induced the 
British government to second private adventure in the explo- 
ration of Africa. The gold-mines of the mountainous re- 
gions, and the varied products of the fertile plains, have never 
been entirely absent from the imagination of those patriotic 
statesmen and enterprising merchants, to whom is due the 
great honour of aiding the resolute discoverers, who laboured 
to trace the course of the Niger and the Congo. The vast 
alluvial districts, which stretch to an immense distance from 
the banks of these celebrated rivers, and the acclivities which 
bask in the rays of an equatorial sun, impressed the minds 

* Geographical and Commercial View of Northern Centra 
Africa, by James M'Queen, p, 214, 



300 COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



of both classes with a firm conviction that, could the elements 
of civilization be once introduced into Africa, the productions 
of Jamaica, of Hindostan, and even of China, might be pro- 
cured at half the usual expense. But our object, in the brief 
sketch now to be given of the commerce of the Barbary 
States, is not to conjecture the extent to which it might be 
improved, and the numerous advantages inseparable from its 
advancement to the natives as well as to foreigners : it is 
simply to present an outline of the actual transactions which 
take place between the dealers of Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, 
and Morocco, and the several kingdoms of Europe, whose 
subjects are permitted to approach their harbours. 

There is a considerable market at Bengazi, to which the 
numerous Arabs who feed their flocks upon the Cyrenean 
mountains conduct great droves of cattle, and bring vast 
quantities of wool, butter, ostrich-feathers, and honey ; and 
at which they purchase fire-arms and gunpowder, Tripoli 
cloaks, and earthenware. A great trade in cattle is still car- 
ried on with Malta, not only for the supply of that island, 
but of vessels which are fitted out for long voyages. The 
ostrich-feathers would alone form a most lucrative branch of 
trade, if they could be bought directly from the Bedouins ; 
but the Jews pay a large annual tribute to the pacha for the 
monopoly of that article. The skin of the male bird, with 
all the feathers attached, is sold by the natives for about 
thirty Spanish dollars, and that of the female for fifteen ; 
while the privileged purchasers dispose of them at Leghorn 
or Marseilles for at least three times the original cost. 

From the quantity of goods actually exported, an opinion 
may be formed as to the extent to which commerce might 
be carried, were the surrounding territory cultivated with 
industry, and the government disposed to encourage a fair 
and open traffic. The great trade which the Genoese main- 9 
tained with the Cyrenaica, in the early times of their repub- 
lic, was one of the richest sources of its prosperity; and we 
" find that, though their mercantile and political connexions 
with this country were subsequent to those formed with Ar- 
menia, Syria, and other places both in Asia Minor and in 
Egypt, they in a short time made such a rapid progress, 
that, in the year 1267, the senate thought it expedient to 
institute at Genoa a school for the study of the Saracenic 
language. There accordingly exists in the public archives 



COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 30 i 



of that city the original manuscript of a treaty, dated 1236, 
between the republic and a certain Busacherino, calling him- 
self Lord of Africa, by which the subjects of the former were 
permitted to trade freely in any port, from Tripoli to the 
(tontines of Barca. It appears also that, besides corn, they 
purchased large quantities of wool, ostrich-feathers, oil for 
their soap-manufactories, different sorts of skins, leather, wax, 
and a variety of fruits. In this enumeration, made 600 years 
ago, we find the several productions of the modern Gyrene ; 
and so abundant was the supply of wool, that the Genoese 
made cloth for most of the maritime cities of Europe. Their 
mercantile speculations, indeed, were at that period supported 
by the powerful navy which they usually kept at sea ; and 
being allies of Saladin, as well as of the Eastern emperors, 
and at the same time masters of Corsica, Cyprus, and several 
towns in Spain, they enforced the observance of treaties by 
the presence of an overwhelming fleet, and once within the 
very walls of Tripoli inflicted ample punishment for the vio- 
lation of good faith.* 

We find that the exports from the pachalic of Tripoli in 
these days are not very different from the merchandise pro- 
duced in the thirteenth century. Wool is still specified as 
an important commodity; to which are added senna and 
other drugs ; madder-roots, barilla, hides, goat and sheep- 
skins dressed ; salt, trona (an alkali resembling borax), os- 
trich-feathers, gold-dust, ivory, gum, dried fruit, and dates ; 
lotus-beans, cassol-venere, saffron, bullocks, sheep, and poul- 
try. Of all these articles the quality is good, and the prices 
are generally lower than those of Algiers and Tunis. The 
duties imposed by his highness are very fluctuating, and usu- 
ally depend on the state of commerce on the opposite shores. 
Cotton is said to have been cultivated very successfully by 
certain individuals in the regency ; but, owing to a want of 
encouragement, it is not produced in such quantities as to 
form a profitable speculation. 

The list of imports comprehends cloths of every colour and 
description, sugar, tea, coffee, spices of all sorts, woollen and 
Manchester stuffs, damasks, silks, gold and silver tissues, 
laces, cochineal, indigo, iron, hardware of all kinds, small 
wines, spirits, capillaire, gunpowder, cannon, muskets, pis- 

* Narrative of an Expedition from Tripoli, p. 199, 
C c 



302 COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



tols and swordblades, naval stores, planks and beams for 
shipbuilding, looking-glasses, toys, cotton thread, and similar 
commodities. To those who may be inclined to barter, a 
ready market is generally found at Tripoli ; and the profits 
may be said to vary from sixty to a hundred per cent., but 
are rarely less than the former.* 

Upon inspecting the commercial lists of Tunis, we find that 
the kind of goods produced for exportation, as well as such 
as are received from the European ports, bear a great re- 
semblance to those already described. Mr. M'Gill procured 
a copy of a tariff, regulating the duty or customs on all mer- 
chandise imported by the subjects of his Britannic majesty, 
from which we extract the following articles : — Cochineal, 
gum-lac, Pernambuco-wood, vitriol, lead, indigo, coral, quick- 
silver, silk, cloves and other spices, opium, musk, tea, steel, 
nails, gun-barrels, pistols, silks, fine cloths, muslin, dimity, 
cambric, sugar in loaf and candied, manna, liquorice, cheese, 
herrings, salmon, arsenic, sarsaparilla, sal-ammoniac, brim- 
stone, rhubarb, camphire, paper, glass, planks, rafters, and 
bottles. The exports are confined to grain, oils of different 
qualities, wool, hides, wax, and a delicate species of soap.t 

The French have profited more than any other European 
kingdom by the trade of the Barbary States. Prior to the 
late war, they procured from Northern xAfrica a large supply 
of very valuable produce, both for their own use and that of 
their neighbours, while they found a lucrative and not incon- 
siderable market for their several manufactories. Even du- 
ring the progress of hostilities, when they were unable to carry 
on the commerce themselves, they regarded the merchants 
of all other countries as intruders on their proper domain ; 
and as many natives of France had settled in the regency, 
they enjoyed advantages which were not conceded to the 
British until the necessity of opening new markets suggested 
to the pacha a more liberal policy. But the trade of Tunis, 
though still the most important on the African coast, has suf- 
fered a great diminution compared with what it was half a 
century ago. Then it was not uncommon to see hundreds of 
ships lying in the roads and at the Goletta, also great num- 
bers at all her outports, loading the rich productions of her 

* Letters from the Mediterranean^ vol, ii., pp. 41, 42. 
| Account of Tunis, p. 112. 



COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 303 



soil to satisfy the wants of Spain, Italy, and France. It is 
now rare to see more than half a dozen vessels at the capi- 
tal, or above one at a time in any of the subordinate har- 
bours ; and these, it is added, are of very small burden. 

This unhappy result is in some degree attributable to the 
furious war which so long wasted the powers of the maritime 
kingdoms of Europe. But the misunderstanding between Al- 
giers and Tunis themselves had a still more ruinous effect 
on the commerce of both ; their mutual aggressions by sea 
and land weakened the resources of each ; and at length put 
a final stop to all such intercourse as might have encouraged 
the industry of their respective inhabitants. The main cause, 
however, of this decline, has been traced to the unwise con- 
duct of the bey. From an ill-directed love of gain, he has 
not only become a merchant himself, but also permits the 
whole of his ministers and the people of his court to follow 
his example. The product or manufacture which his sub- 
jects brought to market, they could formerly sell to the high- 
est bidder ; now it is seized by the rapacity of these princely 
dealers, and if paid for, which is not always the case, a price 
is given at the pleasure of the purchaser, and not with any 
view to the remuneration of the agriculturist or the trades- 
man. 

The French ascribe to the opening of the trade in 1781 
the decline of their commerce on the coast of Barbary. Be- 
fore the period now mentioned, none but themselves could 
carry on trade between that country and the shores of 
Africa, unless upon the payment of a duty amounting to twenty 
per cent. ; and there is no doubt that, since other nations 
were admitted on more liberal terms, the mercantile transac- 
tions of the French have decreased very considerably. In 
place of twelve respectable houses, which enjoyed a very lu- 
crative business, and also several Italian establishments of 
some repute, Mr. M'Gill found only two miserable agencies, 
both of which, in the course of a whole year, did not buy and 
sell as much as one of the former used to do in a month. 
Any little commerce now pursued with the northern shores 
of the Mediterranean is in the hands of Moors, Jews, and 
the Christian subjects of the bey, who are sometimes allowed 
to enter into speculations, though viewed as rivals to his 
highness and the court.* 

* Account of Tunis, p. 127. 



304 COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



But the pacha oppresses commerce not only by his per- 
sonal interference as a dealer, he also paralyzes its energies 
by a system of license, from which he occasionally derives 
large sums of money. The document granted to the mer- 
chant is called a teskera, and the price of it is regulated by 
the demand for the commodity of which it permits the expor- 
tation. As the will of his highness is the only rule, the ex- 
pense of procuring leave to ship any article is not Unfre- 
quently more than equal to the first cost of the cargo itself. 
For example, if wheat be forty-five piasters the measure, the 
teskera may be rated at fifty piasters ; so that the grain, when 
put on board, is more than doubled in price ; and as there is no 
standard or permanent regulation on this head, the foreigner 
who sails thither for corn knows not the terms on which his 
purchases are to be made until the mandate of the bey has 
been issued from his palace of El Bardo. It is manifest, 
therefore, that until this capricious scheme of finance shall be 
discontinued, no British merchant will be induced to trade 
with Tunis.* 

Judging from the latest statement we have seen on this 
subject, there seems reason to conclude that the interests of 
commerce are now viewed through a more favourable medi- 
um, and the range of its operations is again gradually extend- 
ing. In 1830, there entered the ports of Tunis 194 ships, 
of the burden of 20,747 tons, exclusive of those engaged in 
the trade with the other African states and Turkey. It 
would also appear that the largest share of their foreign trans- 
actions again centres at Marseilles, as in the times prior to 
the Revolution. With England there is very little direct in- 
tercourse, though there is a good deal of business carried on 
through the medium of Gibraltar and Malta. The latter set- 
tlement, indeed, might be amply supplied from that quarter 
with most of the necessaries of life, and even the luxuries of 
the table, could the Tunisian government be induced to estab- 
lish fixed principles of trade, and consent to a convenient re- 
ciprocity. Bullocks, sheep, fruit, and vegetables, would be 
shipped in the greatest abundance for our garrisons in the 
Mediterranean, if the ancient habits of a barbarian despotism 
were succeeded by the enlightened policy of modern Eu- 
rope, f 

* Letters from the Mediterranean, vol. ii., p. 266. 
t Dictionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Com* 
merce, &c, by J. R M'Culloch, p. 1197. 



COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 305 



At Tunis accounts are kept in piasters, fifteen of which 
are equal to a pound sterling. Gold, silver, and pearls, are 
weighed by the ounce of eight meticals ; sixteen of these 
ounces making one of their pounds, or 7,773 English grains. 
The principal commercial weight is the cantaro, containing 
100 rottoli or pounds, being equivalent to 111 pounds avoir- 
dupois. The chief corn-measure is the cafiz, which is equal 
to 14J imperial bushels. The wine-measure is the mil- 
lerolie of Marseilles, equal to about 14 of our gallons ; that 
used for oil is denominated metal or mettar, and^ contains 
rather more than five wine-gallons ; but it is of different di- 
mensions in different parts of the country, and is larger at 
Susa, whence most of the oil is exported, than at Tunis. The 
pre or pike is the usual instrument for long-measure ; but it 
varies when applied to woollen cloth, to silk, and to linen. 
For the first it is 26.5 English inches ; for the second it is 
24.8 ; and for the last it is only 18.6 English inches.* 

As to Algiers, before it fell into the occupation of the 
French, its trade was almost entirely carried on by the small 
communities of corsairs, who contrived to combine with 
commerce a destructive war upon the mercantile navy of the 
whole Mediterranean. Their imports, as might be expected, 
differed little from those which are in request at Tunis and 
Tripoli ; consisting chiefly of gold and silver stuffs, dam- 
asks, cloths, spices, tin, iron, plated brass, lead, quicksilver, 
cordage, sail-cloth, bullets, cochineal, linen, tartar, alum, rice, 
sugar, soap, copperas, aloes, diewoods, and vermilion. In 
return they were ready to give — oil, wax, hides, pulse, and 
corn, though not in great quantities, together with the usual 
commodities of rugs, silk sashes, embroidered handker- 
chiefs, ostrich-feathers, dates, and Christian slaves, whose 
ransom sometimes paid for whole cargoes. Some manufac- 
tures in silk, cotton, wool, and leather, were carried on near 
the metropolis, but chiefly by Spaniards who had been indu- 
ced to settle there. Carpets were also made in the country, 
which, though much inferior to those of Turkey, both in beau- 
ty and fineness, were preferred by the people as being at once 
cheaper and softer. It may appear strange, considering the 
pursuits of the natives, that the regency furnished no mate- 

* M'Culloch, Dictionary, &c. Mr. M'Gill makes the pike 25 
aches, 27 inche? and 19£, respectively . 

Cc 2 



306 COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



rials for shipbuilding. They had neither ropes, tar, sails, 
anchors, nor even iron. When they could procure enough 
of new wood to farm the main timbers of a vessel, they sup- 
plied the rest from the materials of the prizes they had ta- 
ken ; and in this way they produced complete fast-sailing 
cruisers from the ruins of captured merchantmen. 

In the " Annuaire," or almanac of Algiers, already quoted, 
we observe copious lists of importations and exportations, 
classed under separate heads, and distinguishing the coun- 
tries from which the goods are brought, and whither they are 
sent. They are farther subdivided into animal substances, 
vegetable substances, mineral substances, and manufactures. 

The particulars, which it would be tedious to enumerate, 
correspond in effect to those already mentioned, together 
with such articles of luxury as are meant for the French 
themselves. The amount of imports from the conquer- 
ing country is stated at 3,891,189 francs ; those from the 
English possessions in the Mediterranean are to the value 
of 837,142 francs; from Italy, -1,168,157 ; from Spain, 
108,726; from Tunis, 112,955; and from Sweden, consist- 
ing entirely of timber, 9,700. The whole sum is 6,127,870 
francs, or 255,328'. sterling. The exportations are classed as 
follow : — 

From Algiers to France, - - - - 631,746 francs. - 
English Possessions, - 4,412 

Italy, - 99,335 

Spain, 18,404 

Tunis, 18,782 

772,679 or 32,195/. 

In the work of Mr. Jackson there are ample materials for 
arriving at an accurate estimate of the commerce of Moroc- 
co, which proves to have been more extensive than the neg- 
lected state of the country and the insecure condition of all 
kinds of property would have led a casual observer to expect. 
The port of Mogadore is now the principal inlet to European 
produce, whence the capital, at the distance of four days 1 
journey, receives its supplies. The articles which meet the 
readiest market are cloths of various fabrics, cambrics, mus- 
lins, blue linens, striped silk, velvets, damask, sugars and 
spices of all kinds, tea, gums of sundry descriptions, iron, 
wrought pewter, tin, white-lead, copper in sheets, mirrors, 



COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 307 



earthenware, paper, coral beads, Brazil-wood, and Mexican 
dollars. 

The exports are sweet almonds, bitter almonds, gum-Bar- 
bary, gum-Soudon, gum-sandrac, beeswax, goat-skins, oil 
of olives, sheep's wool, ostrich-feathers, elephant's teeth, 
pomegranates, raisins, wormseed, rose-leaves, glue, fennel, 
walnuts, cummin- seeds, lead-ore, capers, carraway-seeds, and 
similar productions. The total value of imports for one year 
was 151,450/., and of exports, after paying freight and Eu- 
ropean duties, was 127,679/. ; an amount which, though not 
great, was highly advantageous to the foreign merchant, in- 
asmuch as all the goods conveyed thither were manufactured, 
while all the commodities received in return consisted of raw 
produce.* 

But besides the commercial transactions now mentioned, 
Morocco, like the other Barhary States, maintains a constant 
intercourse with the negro nations beyond the Sahara, whence 
are brought gold-dust, ivory, and gums, more especially that 
valuable species which is known by the name of gum-Sene- 
gal or Soudon. 

At Mogadore, accounts are kept in nutkeels of ten ounces ; 
the ounce being divided into four blankeels, and the blankeel 
into twenty- four fluce. From their proportion to the Spanish 
dollar, the blankeel may be valued at Id., the ounce at 4d. f 
and the nutkeel or ducat at 3s. \d. As to weights, again, 
the commercial pound is generally regulated by the contents 
of twenty Spanish dollars ; and therefore 100 pounds Moga- 
dore weight, or the quintal, are equal to 119 pounds avoirdu- 
pois. But the market-pound for provisions is 50 per cent, 
heavier, or one pound twelve and a half ounces avoirdupois. 
The corn-measures are for the most part similar to those of 
Spain, though there are considerable discrepances. The 
principal long-measure is the cubit or canna, equal to twenty- 
one inches English. t 

Northern Africa, as has been already suggested, possesses 
so many physical advantages, and is capable of so vast an 
improvement, that, were it in the hands of an enlightened 
people, its commerce would soon rival that of the ancient 

* Jackson's Morocco, p. 193. 

f M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce, p. 805 ; and Murray's 
.Encyclopaedia of Geography, p. 1200. 



308 COMMERCE OF THE BARBARY STATES. 



Phoenicians, or even of the most successful among modern 
nations. The country, which was once the granary of Rome, 
might again afford corn to an immense population, and supply 
with the richest delicacies of the vegetable kingdom the 
luxurious inhabitants of Italy, Spain, France, and England. 
Nor ought the views of an expanding trade to be limited to 
the lands, fertile as they maybe, which stretch from the edge 
of the Desert to the shores of the Mediteiranean. The re- 
cent discovery of a river connecting the Atlantic with the 
interior of the magnificent plains that compose the central 
provinces of the continent, encourages hopes of civilization, 
knowledge, and wealth, which at present it might seem 
romantic to express. The arts of Europe, and the astonish- 
ing command over the elements of nature that science con- 
tinues to confer upon educated man, will enable future 
colonists to subdue the wildest portions of the globe, and re- 
plenish them, too, with nations delighting in the enjoyments 
of social life, and cultivating those lofty studies which at 
once bless and adorn the intercourse of human beings.* 

* For additional observations on the commerce of the Barbary 
States, the reader is referred to Pananti's " Narrative of a Resi- 
dence in Algiers," chap, xviii., p. 245, &c. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 309 



CHAPTER XI. 

Natural History. 

Additional Knowledge of Africa supplied by the French — Ge- 
ology — Great and Little Atlas — Structure of the former — 
_ Succeeded by Tertiary Rocks — Supposed Extent of the 
Greater Atlas — Cyrenean Mountains — Reflections on the Des- 
ert — Relics of organized Bodies — Transition-rocks — Lime- 
stone — Tale-slate — Mineral Species — Secondary Formation — 
Limestone-shales — Marlstones and Sandstone — Imbedded 
Minerals — Extent of the Little Atlas — Metals — Tertiary 
Rocks — Calcareous Sandstone, Clays, Porphyry, Dolerite, 
Greenstone, and Basalt — Blue Marl or London-clay — Or- 
ganic Remains — Volcanic Rocks — Diluvian Formation — Soil 
of Metijah — Postdiluvian Formation — Uniform Operation 
of General Laws — Zoology — Scorpions and Serpents — 
Biiska — ErTah — Boah — Locusts — Quadrupeds — Horreh — 
Aoudad — Nimmer — Heirie — Camel — Desert-horse — Birds — 
Ostrich— El Rogr— Tibib— El Hage— Graab el Sahara— Ka- 
raburno— Burourou — Botany — List of Plants — Hashisha — 
Euphorbium — Silphium — Medicinal Qualities — Opinions of 
Delia Cella and Beechey — Reflections. 

The scientific world are indebted to the recent successes 
of the French arms in Northern Africa for some valuable ad- 
ditions to the knowledge of nature in that interesting portion 
of the globe. The travels of Dr. Shaw supplied the first 
collection of facts on which any reliance could be placed, 
relative to the minerals, animals, and plants of the Barbary 
States ; and had he possessed a more intimate acquaintance 
with geology, his work would probably have presented so 
complete a record of physical phenomena as to leave nothing 
to be accomplished by subsequent writers. It is in respect 
to this latter department that we are under the greatest ob- 
ligations- to the labours of M. Rozet, the author to whose 
description of Algiers we have already drawn the attention 
of the reader. 



310 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



SECTION I. GEOLOGY. 

There appears, between the 28th and the 36th degrees of 
north latitude — the limits to which our observations are 
meant to be confined — two separate groups of mountains, 
which are usually distinguished by the names of the Great 
and the Little Atlas. The former, though it has not been 
minutely examined by the eye of science, both from its 
neight and external aspect, maybe confidently pronounced to 
belong to the primitive formation. We are, indeed, assured 
on a good authority, that the central and higher chains are 
composed of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and clay-slate, while 
the inferior ranges exhibit layers of secondary limestone and 
sandstone. These deposites abound in organic remains, shells, 
corals, and even fishes, and are accordingly said to be refer- 
able to the calcareous strata of the secondary class, extend- 
ing from the lias, or even the magnesian limestone, to chalk 
inclusive. Resting upon these last, again, are various of the 
tertiary rocks, among which, at sundry points, are found 
gypsum and salt-springs. It is added, that the secondary and 
tertiary formations are. in numerous places, disturbed and 
upraised by trap-rocks of comparatively modern date.* 

The description now given applies to the whole country 
northward of the Atlas, and agrees in substance with the 
minuter details furnished by the French engineer. We can- 
not, however, refrain from observing, that no information is 
anywhere conveyed as to the termination, on the east or the 
south, of that lofty mass to which onr inquiries are now 
directed. It has been sometimes supposed that the Alpine 
range, of which the towering summits are seen from Morocco, 
extends to the banks of the Nile ; or, at least, droops into 
the Desert near the site of the celebrated Ammonium, at no 
great distance from the territory of Barca. Others have 
been willing to trace the continuity of this formation to the 
neighbourhood of Syene, where mountains of a kindred 
origin flank the course of the river, and stretch towards the 
centre of the continent. But it must be admitted, that there 
is no good ground for either of these conjectures. Delia 
Cella is decidedly of opinion, that the hills of the Cyrenaica 

* Article by Professor Jameson, in Murray's Encyclopaedia 
of Geography, p. 1196. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



311 



are not a prolongation of that magnificent chain which rises 
upon the northern border of the African coast, and extends^ 
in the manner already described, from the Great Syrtis as 
far as the kingdom of Morocco. This, he acknowledges, 
does not prevent the calcareous constitution of Mount Atlas 
from forming also the character of the Cyrenean mountains. 
The hills between Tunis and Algiers are, for the most part, 
composed of limestone, and are full of shells ; and such is 
the character of the eminences observed by Hornemann in 
the tract beyond the Barcean "Wilderness. But the long 
space, beginning at these heights and terminating at the 
granitic mountains on the Nile, whence the Egyptians and 
Romans drew the enormous stones which they employed in 
adorning their public edifices, is covered with a level ocean 
of sand. It appears, therefore, that the system of rocks, to 
which the ridges of the Cyrenaica belong, has no immediate 
connexion with the Atlas, properly so called, but rather with 
that smaller group, denominated the Little Atlas, which, 
rising to a considerable elevation in some parts of the Alge- 
rine and Tunisian States, attains a still nobler altitude in the 
country of the ancient Pentapolis, and at length finally 
declines in the Catabathmos towards the land of Egypt. It 
is also manifest, that the bases of the mountains on . this 
part of the Mediterranean coast are covered, upon their 
northern borders, with a marine alluvial soil, sometimes de- 
composed and sandy, and sometimes conglomerated in crusts 
of different degrees of thickness.* 

The mention of the Desert cannot fail to remind the 
reader, that the consideration of its flat and dreary waste 
suggests one of the most difficult problems in geology. Tb* 
numerous relics of organized bodies which must have been 
produced in the sea, mixed with the remains of forests which 
probably at one time adorned a variety of hills and valleys 
now obliterated by sand, seem to afford evidence that the 
present aspect of Central Africa is not the original one, but 
ought to be ascribed to some dreadful catastrophe, of which 
it perpetuates the effects. " Africa," says a late traveller,. 
" has evidently been washed across." It is therefore, he 
presumes, reasonable to conclude, that the weary plains in 
the interior, south of the Atlantic range, may have been thus 



* Narrative, p, 160. 



312 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



overwhelmed, and that a submerged country, once fertilized 
by the streams which descend from the southern skirts of 
Atlas, is now covered by sand possessing a depth not to be 
ascertained.* 

But, leaving these general reflections, which partake too 
much of conjecture to recommend to our belief any infer- 
ences founded upon them, we proceed to give an outline of 
the geological structure of those sections of the country 
which have been actually examined. We find, then, that 
the following formations have been distinctly ascertained : 
the transition ; the secondary ; the tertiary ; the volcanic ; 
the alluvial or diluvian ; to which may be added those minor 
results springing from causes still in operation, as connected 
with the agency of the sea, rivers, and the action of the 
atmosphere. 

f I. The transition-rocks are observed on the shore near 
Algiers, where the tertiary lime and sandstone are seen re- 
posing on talc-slate, similar to that which is found on the 
coast of France, in the neighbourhood of Toulon. This 
slate forms the principal mass of the mountain called Bou 
Zaria, and of the hill on which the capital is built, extending 
as far as Cape Matafuz. It presents itself in strata very 
much inclined to the horizon and dipping towards the south, 
but never in beds ; and in some parts it is seen passing into 
a well-characterized mica-schist ; while in others the feldspar 
predominates so entirely^ as to give rise to a distinct species 
of gneiss. There are also certain strata of limestone subordi- 
nate to the slate, having a gray colour and a saccharoid ap- 
pearance. This rock often becomes schistose, and then it 
passes by an easy change into slate. Throughout these 
compound masses are discovered veins of quartz, portions 
of iron-pyrites, and lead-glance. At Cape Matafuz, where 
the talc-slate passes into mica-slate, there are still beds of 
limestone placed at a great inclination, denoting the extent 
of the power by which they have been elevated from their 
horizomal posture. 

On tne same line of coast, the talc-schist, by insensible 
degrees, passes into a brown mica-slate containing thin lay- 
ers of white feldspar, some of which, by an additional quantity 
of mica, become gneiss — a result which is also produced 



* Keatinge's Travels in Africa, vol. i., p. 215. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



313 



when the mica-slate, in its turn, combines with feldspar. 
Thus, gneiss appears in a variety of instances as the princi- 
pal member of the formation, being distinguished by an ex- 
cess of feldspar, usually white and of a large leaf or lamina. 
The stratification is very irregular, and presents unequivocal 
marks of a violent action, occasioned, it is probable, by the 
insertion of some subordinate rocks. It is not particularly 
rich in the mineral species which are diffused in it ; the 
chief of which are white and smoke-coloured quartz, pure 
feldspar, crystals of tourmaline, and some fine specimens of 
white mica. The gneiss does not afford any traces of or- 
ganic remains ; and it is remarked that, though the mountains 
composed of it are less elevated than those of slate, the 
form of both is almost entirely the same. 

2. The secondary formation in the Algerine territory 
seems to reduce itself chiefly to what is called the lias mem- 
ber, comprehending limestone-shales, marlstones, and some 
sandstones, which occur along with them. The marls are 
sometimes very bituminous, and contain beds of lignite or 
brown coal, and also fossil-shells, and occasionally beds of 
gypsum, fossil-wood, with silicious impressions of ferns, 
cycadaceas, and fuci. The animal remains are numerous 
and interesting, comprising bones and skeletons of extinct 
tribes, such as the genera geosaurus, ichthyosaurus, and 
plesiosaurus. In particular, the lias contains an immense 
quantity of fossil- she] Is, of which the predominating one is 
the Gryphaa arcuata ; and hence the marlstones of this 
formation have occasionally been named gryphite lime- 
stones.* 

The Little Atlas, which is said to extend six hundred 
miles in length and about eight in breadth, is described as 
consisting principally of slaty marl, alternating with strata of 
calcareous matter. The former, which appears to prevail, is 
quite the same as that found in the lias-beds of Europe, and 
is associated with calcareous sandstone, and sometimes with 
a whitish rock, extremely hard, styled a calcariferous silex. 
In the Mountains of Beni Sala, these marls are intersected 
by veins of white quartz ; and near the summit they are seen 
gradually becoming harder, till they pass into a slate resem- 
bling that of the transition series, and which no longer effer- 



* Jameson, in Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography, p. 223, 
D d 



314 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



vesces in nitric acid. The organic remains are not so abun- 
daut in the African as in the European lias ; the specimens 
mentioned by M. Rozet not exceeding some fragments of 
oysters, some pectenes, beiemnites, a small ammonite, but 
not a single vegetable impression. Copper appears in con- 
siderable quantities, and might in some places be wrought to 
advantage ; but no attempt towards such an object could be 
made in the midst of a desert country, and exposed to the 
continued assault of the most cruel and faithless hordes on 
the face of the earth. 

3. In regular succession, the tertiary rocks rest upon the 
chalk or uppermost member of the secondary class ; and 
though, generally speaking, they are looser in texture than 
the foregoing, they are, in some cases, not less compact. 
They abound in fossil remains of the animal and vegetable 
kingdoms, of which the genera are commonly the same with 
those now in existence, though many of the species are dif- 
ferent. In this division of the mineral world are included 
some clays, calcareous sandstones, and trap-rocks, such as 
porphyry, dolerite, greenstone, and basalt. To these may 
be added, as it respects Africa, beds of sand more or less im- 
pregnated with iron, which alternate with sandstone, or a 
ferruginous limestone, known to the French as " c ale aire 
grossier," and in England by the familiar appellation of Lon- 
don-clay. In the vicinity of the Little Atlas this aggrega- 
tion of beds rests upon a blue marl a little paler than that 
which belongs to the lias formation. On the southern side 
of the range, especially, there appears an immense group of 
hills, extending to a great distance in all directions, and some 
of them rising nearly to the height of 5,000 feet above the 
level of the sea ; all of which are composed of the rocks now 
described, constituting a formation quite similar to that found 
in Italy on either declivity of the Apennines. 

The blue marl is covered by a great depth of calcareous 
sandstone, as also of London-clay, with corals, alternating 
with sand, both yellow and red. The sandstone, also, when 
much impregnated with iron, assumes the same colour. The 
beds which compose it incline to the north at an angle which 
never exceeds 20° ; they are even sometimes quite horizon- 
tal. This tertiary formation contains an immense quantity 
of large oysters — ostria elongata — entirely identical with 
fcboee which are foond in the corresponding position in 



natural history. 



315 



Provence and Italy. No fragment, however, has been dis- 
covered of the bones of fish or quadrupeds. The limestone, 
which is frequently compact, presents in its composition a 
great number of corals, as is the case in Austria and Hun- 
gary. The oysters lie in the mass of sandstone, but more 
particularly in the sand itself, which is interposed between the 
beds. They are found grouped together, several in one 
place, and most of them retain their two valves or shells — a 
proof that they are still in the place in which they were when 
alive, however distant the period. 

All the country that the French army have hitherto passed 
over southward of the Little Atlas, consists of this tertiary 
formation ; and, in judging by analogy from the form of the 
hills as they appeared to the eye at a distance, it was con- 
cluded that the same rocks prevail to a great extent, both 
towards the east and the west, comprehending all the basins 
invested by the several chains of mountains to the border of 
the Sahara. The sands of that desert, it is conjectured by 
M. Rozet, are nothing different from the sand which is some- 
times found in the higher parts of this formation, and beneath 
which the sandstone and lime exist in horizontal beds cover- 
ing the blue marl. Hence, it is not improbable, that a similar 
succession obtains throughout, the whole of the dreary waste 
which separates Barbary from the regions of the Senegal and 
Niger. 

It is a little remarkable, that though the rocks which skirt 
the northern edge of the great plain of the Metijah are the 
same, and arranged in the same order with those on the 
south side of the Little Atlas, the inclination, as well as the 
fossil remains, are different. These last are much more 
abundant in the hills near the coast, and the shellfish are 
often se^en distinguished by families ; consisting usually of 
the pectenes, the gryphites — ostria navicularis— large oysters, 
but very different from those of the southern range, terebra- 
tnli, echinites, and several polypi. 

4. Of volcanic rocks there is no trace in all the portion of 
the Minor Atlas visited by the enterprising Frenchman, nor 
in any part of the great plain already so often mentioned. 
It was "only at Cape Matafuz, in the neighbourhood of the 
fort, that trachyte was observed as having issued from under 
the tertiary formation. A very curious fact was also noticed 
in the same place. All the beds of limestone which repose 



316 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



upon the blue marl are perfectly horizontal ; but at the place 
where the porphyry has forced its way through the strata 
there is a depression, and the beds are there found inclined 
to the horizon at an angle of from 15° to 20°. The trachyte 
of Matafuz is a petro-silicious rock, enclosing small crystals 
of white feldspar, with minute plates of brown mica, and we 
need not add that it belongs to the family of the porphyries. 
Small fragments of porous lava were picked up, but could 
not be traced to their site. There is hardly any doubt that 
basaltic formations will be detected at no great distance from 
the spot, so soon as the zeal of science can be separated 
with impunity from the vigilance of military life, and the stu- 
dent of nature can venture to go abroad without the protec- 
tion of a regular escort carrying ball-cartridge. 

5. The diluvian formation, as the phrase is used by French 
authors, seems to denote those changes on the face of the 
earth produced by a great rush of waters, whether that re- 
corded in Sacred Writ, or any subsequent flood which may 
have since affected particular localities. The whole soil of 
the plain of Metijah is said to consist of alluvial matter, usu- 
ally displayed in horizontal beds of an argillaceous marl, and 
of rolled pebbles, greatly water-worn, but among which are 
never found large blocks of stone. Everywhere are seen 
the deserted beds of spacious rivers, the steep banks of which 
afford a good opportunity for studying the geognostic consti- 
tution of the country. Copious streams must formerly have 
flowed along these channels, and given to the adjoining dis- 
tricts the geological character they still retain. The nature 
of the marl, it is observed, is nearly the same throughout, 
but that of the pebbles often changes, both in quality and 
magnitude. Near the foot of the mountains, the hollows, 
once occupied by torrents, display large masses of quartz, 
black and gray limestone, and numerous portions of slate, 
which must have been brought down by the weight of water 
acting on the declivities. 

The bed of vegetable earth, still in many places several 
feet thick, is always composed of the alluvial marl, which is 
compact in its structure, and not easily penetrated by water ; 
and hence the origin of the springs and rivulets that are oc- 
casionally observed while crossing the plain. The level of 
the ground, too, is perceived to rise gradually as the travel- 
ler approaches the Atlas. At Mazafran the soil is only sev- 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



317 



enty feet above the sea, whereas fifteen miles farther south it 
has attained the elevation of 520 feet. We have observed, 
in the works of Delia Cella and M. Rozet, mention made of 
red marl and red sand, especially in the vicinity of the coast. 
The former collected a quantity near Apollonia, the singular 
colour of which, after a close examination, he found to pro- 
ceed from a very minute species of coral, dispersed among 
the sand in such abundance as to constitute about one third 
of its bulk. Having put half an ounce of it into nitric acid, 
it almost -entirely disappeared ; differing in this respect from 
the common sand of the Desert, which was not acted upon 
by that liquid in the slightest degree. It is not improbable 
that the red marl at Algiers may have acquired its colour in a 
similar way. — Small, beds of travertin were seen on the sides 
of the mountains near the sea, evidently formed by nitration 
from the superior strata. 

6. We find, moreover, a postdiluvian formation recorded 
by the staff-officer, which is meant to comprehend those 
changes that are brought to pass by existing causes ; namely, 
the action of the wind in raising mounds of sand along the 
shore; the formation of new land at the mouths of rivers; 
the disemboguement of lakes; and the disintegration of 
rocks. But the country has not yet been subjected to an ex- 
amination sufficiently minute to justify any conclusions as to 
any recent modification of its surface in the respects now 
mentioned. 

M. Rozet sees reason to believe that all the igneous rocks 
he has described, the granites, porphyries, and dolomites, are 
posterior to the tertiary formation — a fact not quite so well 
confirmed as its importance, viewed in a geological sense, 
would require. He expresses, too, a degree of astonishment 
with which few of his readers will sympathize, at finding 
near Oran dolerites — a compound of augite and feldspar — 
where he expected porphyry. As both, according to the re- 
ceived system of geology, are of Plutonian origin, it is clearly- 
impossible to determine, in any particular case, which of the 
two is the more likely to presentitself, as the agent employed 
by nature to elevate the superincumbent strata.* 

The knowledge we now possess of the mineralogical 
structure of Northern Africa, limited and imperfect as it un= 



Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, tome i., p. 



318 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



questionably is, affords another proof of the universal as weil 
as the uniform operation of those laws under which the crust 
of the earth has assumed its present appearance. The shore 
at Algiers, the heights of the Minor Atlas, the plain of Meti- 
jah, and the Cyrenean hills, exhibit the same phenomena to 
which the eye of the geologist has been long accustomed in 
the best-known countries of Europe. In fact, there is a 
great resemblance between the districts now occupied by the 
French — especially if restricted to the tertiary formation — 
and the lands in the neighbourhood of Paris and London. 
It is, indeed, a remark as old as the days of Dr. Shaw, that 
the stone^used in the ancient edifices of Julia Caesarea, Sitifi, 
Cirta, and Carthage, was not much different either in tex- 
ture or colour from the Heddington stone in the vicinity of 
Oxford — a mixture of calcareous and silicious substances, 
which, in some cases, approaches to marl, and even to 
chalk.* 

We learn from the same author, that near Algiers and 
Bona, the schistose talc lies immediately upon the surface, 
and is often very beautifully gilded w T ith gold-like mica, while 
the sparry matter which fills up the fissures glitter with 
spangles imitating silver. Delia Cella observed a similar 
appearance in the eastern parts of the Tripoline territory, 
occasioned by a combination of iron-pyrites with mica, talc, 
and crystallized limestone. 

As to metals, iron and lead are the only ones that have 
been hitherto discovered, if we except the supposed mines of 
gold and silver in the empire of Morocco. The iron is said 
to be good, though not abundant ; and being wrought by the 
Kabyles in the mountainous districts of Bujeya, was wont to 
be conveyed to Algiers in small short bars. The lead-ores 
are in general very rich ; and, provided the works were un- 
der a better regulation, they would produce a great quantity 
of metal. "We have already suggested, that in the hilly 
parts of the country there are very distinct indications of cop- 
per — a commodity which is highly prized in the regency of 
Algiers, and will one day, there can be no doubt, prove to it 
a source of much wealth. 

* Travels in Barbary, vol. L, p. 279, 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



319 



SECTION II. — ZOOLOGY. 

It was a maxim among the ancients, originating in their 
ignorance of nature, and perpetuated by their belief in spon- 
taneous generation, that " Africa was always producing some 
new monster." But a closer survey has proved that the 
southern shores of the Mediterranean exhibit no living crea- 
tures which may not be found in every other part of the 
world where there are the same qualities of soil and climate. 

The naturalist who proceeds systematically would arrange 
his observations under separate heads, beginning with the 
simplest conformations, and advancing gradually to those 
which are more complex. At the opening of his path he 
would find zoophites, mollusca, including cephalopodes, and 
other species ; after which he would direct his attention to 
fishes, to frogs, to reptiles, to the Crustacea, or land-crabs 
and turtles, and finally to insects. Having afterward ex- 
hausted ornithology, he would in due time arrive at the 
Mammalia — a class which embraces nearly all descriptions of 
quadrupeds, and even man himself, the lord of this province 
of the visible creation. 

But our scheme is much more limited, extending no farther 
than is implied in the desire to lay before our readers such a 
view as may prove intelligible to them all, of the several ani- 
mals which are either peculiar to Africa, or appear in that 
region invested with qualities not common elsewhere. Not 
fading, for example, that the zoophites, the mollusca, or the 
Crustacea of the Barbary States, are in any material respects 
different from those which occur in every kingdom of Europe, 
we shall refrain from copying long lists of names descriptive 
of species belonging to every continent, and possessing no 
interest except in the estimation of a scientific zoologist. 

Africa has long been celebrated for scorpions and serpents ; 
and although none are now to be found so extremely formi- 
dable as that enormous specimen which impeded the progress 
of a Roman army, there are some sufficiently large and de- 
structive to inspire a great degree of terror. Of the lattei 
there are only two species understood to be very venomous f 
the one of a black colour, about seven or eight feet long 
with a little head, which it expands frequently to fc ar timer 
its ordinary size when about to attack any objec I This 
serpent is called buska, and is the only one that wi assail a 



320 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



passenger unprovoked ; in doing which it coils itself up, and 
darts to a great distance by the elasticity of its body and tail. 
The wound inflicted by the bite is small ; but the surround- 
ing part immediately turns black, and the sufferer expires in 
a very short time. El effah is the name of the other serpent, 
remarkable also for its quick and penetrating poison. It is 
about two feet long, and as thick as a man's arm, beautifully 
spotted with yellow and brown, and sprinkled all over with 
black specks, similar to the horn-nosed snake. In the desert 
of Suz their holes are so numerous, that it is difficult for a 
horse to pass over them without stumbling. 

Bui the boah, or snake of the Sahara, is the most enormous 
of these monsters, being from twenty to eighty feet long, and 
as thick as a man's body. It is not strictly poisonous, though 
in its ravages it is not less destructive to the other inhabitants 
of the waste. So swift is its motion, that the Arab describes 
it as setting fire to the Desert by the extreme velocity of its 
course ; and hence there is no possibility of. escaping. It 
will twist itself round an ox, crush the bones, and swallow it 
gradually ; after which it lies torpid on the ground several 
days, unable to proceed until the process of digestion be com- 
pleted. A few years ago, two of these reptiles stationed 
themselves near the road from Morocco to Terodant ; one 
of them was killed ; the other remained there several days, 
and prevented travellers from passing forward. As neither 
was more than twenty feet in length, it was concluded that 
they were both young. 

Most of the other serpents are harmless, and may be 
tamed ; and in some towns there are few houses without 
one, which may be seen moving along the roof of the apart- 
ment. They are never molested by the family, who would 
not hurt them on any consideration, believing that they bring 
a blessing on the .household. On their part, too, they are 
extremely susceptible of offence, and alive to the slightest 
appearance of injury ; on which account, it is thought im- 
prudent to incur their displeasure. 

The scorpion abounds very much in some parts of Barbary, 
particularly among stones and old houses. It is generally 
about two inches in length, and in its colour varies from 
y ellow to brown, and even to black. The wound inflicted by 
it is followed by a feeling of intense cold, and very often ter- 
minates in death. During the summer, we are informed, the 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



321 



city of Morocco is so infested with this venomous reptile, 
that it is not uncommon to find them in the beds. As the 
flesh of the creature itself, applied to the part of the body 
which has been stung, effects a certain cure, most families 
keep a bottle of scorpions infused in olive oil ; it being ascer- 
tained that a dead one is not less efficacious as a remedy, 
than if the individual which had inflicted the wound were it- 
self killed and used for the purpose. 

There is no country in the world which suffers more than 
Northern Africa from the desolation committed by the locust. 
The production of this winged plague is one of the secrets 
of nature ; for, after an interval of many years, during which 
it is not seen, it issues from the Desert in such numbers as 
not only to destroy all the fruits of the earth, but even to 
cover the surface of the ground. In Barbary they are always 
observed to come from the south, the direction of the Sahara, 
whereas in Palestine they proceed from the east — a fact 
which establishes their origin in connexion with the Wilder- 
ness, the vast expanse of sandy waste which constitutes the 
boundary of both regions. They are understood to have a 
government among themselves similar to the ants and bees ; 
when the Sultan Jeraad, or King of the Locusts, rises into 
the air, the whole body follow him ; and in their course they 
proceed as regularly as a disciplined army on its march, nor 
is a single one seen either remaining behind or going a dif- 
ferent way from the rest. When young, this insect is green; 
but as it grows it assumes first a yellow colour, and then be- 
comes black. The sultan is said to be larger and more beau- 
tifully coloured than the rest, though it is not easy to procure 
a sight of him. 

At certain seasons the locust is esteemed a great delicacy, 
and dishes of them are generally served up at the repasts of 
the principal families. The usual mode of cooking is to boil 
them in water half an hour, then sprinkle them with salt and 
pepper, and fry them, adding a little vinegar : the head, legs, 
and wings are thrown away, the rest of the body is eaten, and 
resembles the taste of prawns. 

Of quadrupeds, we shall only mention a few of the more 
striking ; purposely omitting those which are common to the 
different parts of Africa, such as the red fox, the hyena, the 
gazelle, the horse, and the camel. 

The horreh is greatly esteemed among^the Arabs for its 



322 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



beauty and cleanliness, and is accounted the prince of ani- 
mals. It is an inhabitant of the Sahara, and is never found 
to the north of the river Suz. In form and size, it is some- 
what similar to the gazelle ; the colour of its back and head is 
of a light red, inclining to that of a fawn ; while the belly is of 
a white so beautiful and delicate, that its brilliancy affects the 
eves in a manner bearing some resemblance to the sensation 
produced in them by looking steadfastly at fine scarlet. Ac- 
cording to the belief of the natives it never lies down, lest it 
should impair the splendour of its fur, of the elegance of 
which it appears fully conscious ; and as it is held the emblem 
of purity, its skin is preferred by the rich to all other substan- 
ces when used as a cushion or mat on which to prostrate 
themselves at prayer. 

The aaudad is an animal which is never found except 
among the cliffs or forests of Mount Atlas, southward of 
Morocco and the Lower Suz. It sometimes, indeed, descends 
to the rivers to drink, where it is seen throwing itself from 
lofty precipices into the plain below, when it generally alights 
on its horns or shoulders. None of them have^ever been 
taken alive, being so wild that it is not possible to approach 
them without great danger. In size and colour it is not un- 
like a calf, but has a beautiful long mane or beard flowing 
from the lower part of the neck ; it has strong teeth, and 
curved horns about twelve inches in length. 

The trimmer is closely related to the leopard ; being spot- 
ted rather than striped, and in size resembles the royal tiger 
of Asia. It is remarkable for strength and agility ; putting to 
a severe task all the ingenuity and courage of the African 
hunters. When roused to anger, he is considered more 
dangerous than the lion ; because he is not only more active, 
but climbs trees after his assailants, and scales the walls 
which they may have ascended. 

The sibsib appears to be of an intermediate species between 
the rat and the squirrel, being somewhat similar to the ich- 
neumon in form, though not half its size. It inhabits the 
Atlas, and lives in holes among the stones and caverns of 
the mountains : it has brown hair, and a beautiful tail about 
the length of its whole body. The Arabs eat this animal, 
and consider it a delicacy, notwithstanding the prohibition 
of their prophet, who forbade the use of such quadrupeds as 
burrow under ground. The sibsib is seldom seen northward 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



323 



of the province of Suz, but it abounds in all the mountains of 
that district.* 

The heirie, erragnol, or desert-camel, is an animal which 
must not be omitted in our zoological outline. In form, it 
bears a strong resemblance to the common camel, but is more 
elegant in its shape and incomparably swifter. The Arab, 
mounted upon this useful creature, with his loins, ears, and 
breast bound round, in order to prevent the fatal effects which 
result from a violent percussion of the air, traverses with m> 
mense rapidity the scorching sands of the Great Sahara, the 
fiery atmosphere of which impedes respiration to a degree 
that would instantly kill any other rider. The motion of the 
erragnol is violent, and can only be endured by those patient, 
abstemious, and hardy individuals who are accustomed to it, 
and who can travel three days without tasting food, or not 
more than a handful of dates. When speaking of this fleet 
courser, the natives remark in their figurative style, " If thou 
shalt meet a heirie, and say to the rider Salam alec, ere he 
shall have answered Alec salam, he will be far off, and near- 
ly out of sight, for his swiftness is like the wind'." 

Of this singular species of the camel there are three varie- 
ties, easily distinguished by the natives of the African Wilder- 
ness. The first, which is extremely rare, is denominated 
tasayee, or the heirie of nine days ; that is, he can perform a 
nine days' journey in one. The second is the sabayee, which 
in one day can go the usual distance of seven ; and the 
third, or most inferior, is the talatayee, whose speed is limited 
to a three days' journey. This valuable and useful animal, 
we are informed, has a ring put through his upper lip, to 
which is fixed a leathern strap, answering the purpose of a 
bridle ; the saddle is similar to that used by the Moors and 
the mountaineers of Andalusia. With a goat-skin, or a 
porous earthen vessel, filled with water, a few dates, and 
soma ground barley, the Arab travels from Timbuctoo to 
Tafllet, feeding his heirie but once ; for on an emergency this 
powerful quadruped will abstain from drinking during the long 
space of seven days.f 

* An Account of the Empire of Morocco, by James Grey 
Jackson, Esq., p. 31-37. 

f Jackson's Morocco, p 40, The heirie is by Dr. Shaw 
called maihary or ashaarv* vol. i , p. 30& 



324 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



The shruabah ereeh, or desert-horse, has also some re- 
markable qualities, and partakes to a certain extent of the 
constitution belonging to the wonderful creature now de- 
scribed. As, however, Tie requires a feed of camePs milk 
every day, he is not so well fitted for the fatigues of the 
Sahara, where such an accommodation cannot always be pro- 
cured. If confined to com, hay, or straw, he loses at once 
his beauty and his swiftness, and not unfrequently pines 
away. The ereeh resembles a greyhound in form, having 
a slender body, a powerful broad chest, and small legs ; and 
his principal use in the hands of an Arab is to hunt the 
ostrich, at which he is said to be very expert.* 

In the department of birds there is no great variety in the 
Barbary States, as distinguished from other parts of the same 
continent. The ostrich, the eagle, the vulture, and the stork, 
are found here in great perfection, more especially in the 
neighbourhood of the Atlas, where the monarch of winged 
creatures enjoys his throne in the utmost security. Of the 
stork, the general colour is white, the extremities of the 
wings being tipped with black, and the height from the toe 
to the bill nearly three feet. During the summer, the old 
towns of West Barbary are frequented by these birds, which 
usually go in pairs ; they are migratory, and when they do 
not return to their wanted haunts at the accustomed season, 
it is considered by the inhabitants as ominous of evil. Any 
person who should presume to shoot this sacred visiter would 
incur the resentment of the whole city, and be accounted a 
sacrilegious infidel ; for besides being of the greatest utility 
in destroying serpents and other noxious reptiles, they are 
also emblematical of faith and conjugal affection, and, on 
that account, held in the highest estimation by all true 
Mussulmans. 

There is a bird, by the natives called el rogr, whiju in 
form is not unlike the English partridge, though its pk mage 
is much darker. It is found only in dry stony places, and 
seems to feed on the stunted shrubs with which such rocky 
parts are usually covered ; basking in the solar rays with 
every appearance of delight, and only rising on the wing at 

* Jackson, p. 42. We purposely abstain from a description 
of the quadrupeds and birds common to the Barbary States with 
the other parts of Africa, referring the reader to the fuller notices 
contained in our volumes on Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



325 



noon ancTsunset, when it flies to the nearest river to quench 
its thirst. This variety is altogether unknown in Europe. 

The tibib, which resembles the sparrow, is very common 
in Barbary, and visits the houses every morning without the 
slightest symptom of fear. It was originally an inhabitant 
of the Atlas, whence it was brought by an English merchant 
to Mogadore, where the breed has continued ever since. 

El hage, not so large as a blackbird, and of a grayish col- 
our, lives upon beetles and other insects of a similar nature, 
which he never eats till they begin to putrefy. He frequents 
thorny bushes, on the upper spikes of which he sticks his 
little victims, where they are allowed to remain till by their 
scent they show proofs of incipient decay, and invite him to 
a repast. He has obtained his name, el hage or hajji, from 
the circumstance, that numbers of them are seen accompa- 
nying the caravans to Mecca ; and hence the reverence and 
even superstition with which he is regarded by the more 
ardent disciples of the prophet. 

Dr. Shaw mentions the graab el Sahara^ or crow of the 
Desert, which is somewhat larger than the common raven ; 
and from the redness of the feet and bill may be identified 
with the pyrocorax. The karabumo is of the eagle-kind, 
and not smaller than our buzzard ; having a black bill, red 
iris, yellow short feet, the back of a gray or light-blue colour, 
the pinions of the wings black, and the tail whitish. The 
burourou, one of the largest species of horned owls, is spotted 
like the Norwegian. It generally frequents the Sahara ; and 
when it appears to the northward among the towns and villa- 
ges, it is fancied to portend some direful calamity, a famine, 
or a pestilential distemper.* 



SECTION III. BOTANY. 

Oh this subject there is a valuable fund of information, 
though interesting chiefly to a professional botanist, to be 
obtained in the " Flora Atlantica" of the celebrated Desfon- 
taines. "We learn also from Rozet, that the members of the 
vegetable kingdom which occupy the plain between the 



* Shaw's Travels, vtoli, p. 33a 
Ee 



326 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



coast and the range of the little Atlas, are absolutely the 
same as those most common on the northern and eastern 
shores of the Mediterranean, the borders of Spain, Provence, 
Italy, the Archipelago, and Syria. The trees and plants 
which adorn the fields in the temperate latitudes of Europe, 
are also seen in the gardens of Algiers, Bleeda, and Colea. 
In the neighbourhood of the capital were observed the fol- 
lowing, most of which are familiar to the students of France, 
and even of England : — Fumaria Officinalis ; Melilotus Offi- 
cinalis ; Mimosa Farnesiana ; Sanguisorba Officinalis ; Mes- 
pylus Oxyacantha ; Scabiosa Arvensis ; Senecio Vulgaris ; 
Convolvulus Arvensis ; Borago Officinalis ; Solanum Nigrum ; 
Solanum Dulcamara ; Lamium Album ; Marrubium Vulgare ; 
Mentha Pulegium ; Anagallis Arvensis ; Plantago Corono- 
pus ; Plantago Media; Rumex Acetosella ; Urtica Urens ; 
Salix Alba ; Salix Babylonica, &c. 

The following are peculiar to the Barbary States, and are 
not found even in the southern parts of Europe. M. Rozet 
discovered them chiefly on the hills near Algiers, in the plain 
of the Metijah, and in the vicinity of Oran : — Condylocarpus 
Muricatus ; Cleome Arabica ; Cistus Heterophyllus, Cistus 
Arabicus ; Malva ^gyptiaca ; Genista Tricuspidata ; Phaca 
Boetica ; Pyrus Japonica ; Sanguisorba Mauritanica ; Passi- 
flora Caerulea ; Sempervivunt Arboreum ; Ferula Sulcata ; 
Laserpitium Gumrmferum ; Sium Siculum ; Apium Graveo- 
lens ; Cachrys Tomentosa, Cachrys Peucedanoides ; Zacin- 
tha Verrucosa ; Carduus Giganteus ; Atrachylis Gummifera ; 
Artemisia Arboria ; Cynara Carduncellus ; Erica Arboria ; 
Lithospermum Fruticosum ; Datura Ferox ; Physalis Som- 
nifera ; Scrophularia Auriculata ; Thymus Numidicus ; Ru- 
mex Tingitanus ; Aristolochia Boetica ; Euphorbia Mauritan- 
ica ; Pinus Alba ; Iris Florentina ; Allium Roseum ; Orni- 
thogalum Arabicum; Narcissus Tazetta ; Scilla Maritima ; 
Arundo Donax ; Arundo Mauritanica, &c* 

Among the more familiar plants, prized in Northern 
Africa, are the takanareete, the hashisha, the dergmuse, or 
euphorbium, and the celebrated silphium, so long an article 
of commerce. 

The first, which is properly the cactus opuntia, is occa- 
sionally known as the Indian fig, or prickly-pear. The tre% 



* Voyage dans la Regence d'Alger, tome i., pp. 180, 181. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



327 



its leaves, from the sides of which the fruit springs, are thick 
and succulent, and impregnated with a mucilaginous nice, 
so peculiarly cooling as to be used with gum-ammonica in cases 
of inflammation. When ripe, the fig or pear is of an oval 
form, with a colour inclining to yellow, and is chiefly valued 
for its effects in restoring the power of the digestive organs 
when deranged by the heat of the climate. 

The hashisha, or African hemp-plant, is very generally 
cultivated in the western parts of the Barbary States ; not so 
much for its use in the manufacture of cordage, as for those 
qualities in which it resembles opium. The leaves, but more 
especially the seeds and flowers, called kief, are smoked by 
the natives, who are said to derive from it an oblivion of all 
their cares, and the most delightful excitement of the ima- 
gination. Those who have been long accustomed to its use 
cannot exist without it. The kief is usually pounded and 
mixed with a confection called " elmogin," which is sold at 
an exorbitant price. A piece of it as large as a walnut will 
deprive a man of all the ordinary powers of reason, and is 
much preferred to opium, from the voluptuous sensations 
which it never fails to produce. Wine or brandy, they 
maintain, cannot stand in competition with it. The leaves 
are dried and cut like tobacco, with which they are smoked 
in very small pipes ; but when an individual wishes to indulge 
in the sensual stupor it occasions, he smokes the hashisha 
pure, and in less than half an hour he fancies himself an em- 
peror and master of the whole world, of all its wealth and 
its pleasures. 

Euphorbium, called furbiune by the Arabs, is a gum pro- 
duced by a very succulent plant growing on the Atlas Moun- 
tains, and known in the country by the name of dergmuse. 
In its general form it resembles a large goblet, and is some- 
what like a wild thistle. From the main body of the stem 
proceed several leafless branches, about an inch in diameter, 
from the top of which shoot out similar ones, each bearing 
on its summit a vivid crimson flower. These branches are 
scalloped, and have on their outer sides small knots, from which 
grow five extremely sharp thorns, about one third of an inch 
in length, apparently intended by nature to prevent cattle 
from eating this caustic plant, so perilous to animal life. 
"When it assumes this aspect it may be considered mature ; 
ipon which the natives dwelling in the lower parts of the 



328 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



upon which the natives dwelling in the lower parts of the 
Atlas make incisions in it with a knife. From these the 
juice issues in considerable quantities, and, after being dried 
by the sun, contracts a yellowish colour, and is fit for being 
gathered in the shape of euphorbium — a medicinal drug of 
the very highest power. The plant produces only once in 
four years ; but the supply notwithstanding is fully equal to 
the demand ; the cathartic quality being rather too vigorous 
for European practice. The persons who collect this gum 
are obliged to tie a cloth over their mouth 'and nostrils, to 
prevent the small particles from annoying them by entering 
the brain or stomach. 

We are informed that the bark of the dergmuse is greatly 
valued by tanners, and that to its singular effects the leather of 
Morocco owes its chief pre-eminence. Various attempts have 
been made to transplant it to the neighbourhood of the capital, 
but hitherto, owing to some difference in the soil or climate, 
without any degree of success. It grows most luxuriantly 
in mountainous situations, interspersed with rocks, and 
where the interstices are filled with a black loam chiefly 
formed of decomposed vegetables.* 

The silphium, well known to the botanists and epicures 
of antiquity, is only to be found in the eastern parts of the 
Tripoline dominions, where also it is fast becoming extremely 
scarce, owing to the pains taken by the Bedouins to extir- 
pate it, under the impression that it is hurtful to their cattle. 
In fact, it is believed by some writers to have entirely dis- 
appeared, while others see good reason to identify it with the 
spaghe, a weed which causes great mortality among camels. 
According to Theophrastus, the silphium has a thick fleshy 
root, perennial and medicinal : its stem is formed like that 
of the papyrus and the ferula, equalling this last in thickness ; 
while its leaves resemble those of the selinum or Macedo- 
nian parsley. It is found, he adds, at Cyrene, and princi- 
pally in the environs of the Syrtis, near the Gardens of the 
Hesperides.f 

The medicinal qualities of this plant have been greatly ex- 
tolled by Pliny, who states that the extract, called laser, 
usually brought its weight in silver, and was kept in the 

* Jackson's Morocco, p. 80. 

t Histor. Plant., lib. iv. and lib. vi., passim, quoted by Delia 
Cella, p. 129. 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



329 



public treasury along with the precious metals. On one oc- 
casion, when Julius Caesar was making preparations for war, 
it was sold for the service of the commonwealth, and con- 
sidered a principal resource of the public revenue. It is 
certain, too, that all the ancients agreed in describing the 
Cyrenaica as the peculiar country of the silphium ; and we 
learn also from the Greek naturalist, that it was inconceiva- 
bly averse to every other soil, and could not be transplanted 
without the hazard of loss.* 

In the work of Captain Beechey, the vegetable now men- 
tioned is said to be about three feet in height, and to have a 
strong resemblance to the hemlock, or more properly, perhaps, 
to the daucas, or wild carrot. It appears to have been found 
in Asia, as well as in some parts of Europe ; but that of 
Cyrene was the most esteemed, and constituted a valuable 
article of commerce. In the time of Pliny it had become 
so scarce in the market, that a single stalk of it was given to 
the Emperor Nero, as a present suitable to a person of his rank. 
The extract and the stem or root — the laser and laserpilium 
of the naturalist — are mentioned in the bill of fare of the Per- 
sian monarchs, as given by Polynaeus, which was discovered 
by Alexander the Great, engraved on a brazen column in the 
royal palace. As to the appearance of the extract, we have 
no information ; but the stem and the root seem to have 
been eaten much in the same way that we eat celery — which, 
indeed, it very much resembles — either stewed or boiled, f 

We have already mentioned that the climate of Barbary is 
free from those extremes and sudden changes which charac- 
terize the atmospherical phenomena of Europe. The air is 
wholesome and temperate, neither too hot in summer nor 
too cold in winter ; and the successive seasons fall so insen- 
sibly into one another, that the transition is not felt by the 
most delicate constitution. During twelve years that Dr. 
Shaw spent in the country, the thermometer only twice de- 
scended to the freezing point ; on bother hich occasions the 
hills were covered with snow ; and the aii was never sultry, 
except when the wind blew from the Desert. The barometer, 
again, amid all the revolutions of the weather, did not vary 
more than an inch and three tenths • rising with the north 

* Plin. Hist, Nat., lib. xvii., p. 3. Narrative, p. 132. 
f Proceedings of the Expedition, &c., p. 412-416. 
E e 2 



330 



NATURAL HISTORY. 



wind, although there were heavy rains, and falling with the 
south, whatever might be the condition of the atmosphere as 
to moisture. 

The average quantity of rain marked annually at Algiers is 
about 28 inches, beginning usually in autumn, and continuing 
at intervals till the month of May. Little or none is enjoyed 
during the summer ; and in most parts of the Sahara, partic- 
ularly in the Jerid, there is seldom any rain at all. These 
observations apply generally to the districts along the Medi- 
terranean shore, but must be subjected to some modification 
when referred to the territories of Morocco, owing as well to 
the vicinity of the mountains as of the Atlantic Ocean, which 
washes its western border.* 

* Travels in Barbary, vol i., p. 244. Voyage dans la Regence 
d'Alger, tome i., p. 83-137. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Abd allah, lieutenant of Caliph Othman, invades Africa, 86. 

Africa, Northern, division of. according to Herodotus, 21. Com- 
merce of, 298. Physical advantages of numerous, 307. Ge 
ology of, illustrated by French writers, 310. Extent of, ac 
cording to several authors, 64. 

JEneas supposed to touch the shores of Carthage, 25. 

JEtius, dispute with Bonifacius, 73, whom he slays, 75. 

Agadeer, notice of, 292. 

Aglabites, foundation of the dynasty of the, 90. 

Agriculture encouraged by the Carthaginians, 28. 

Akbah invades Barbary States, 87. His great success, ib. He 

builds Kairwan, a mosque, and palace, ib. 
Al Bereton, description of, 115. 

Alexander the Great, resentment of against the Carthaginians 
for assisting the people of Tyre, 32. 

Algiers, origin of the term, 230. Extent of territory, 231. City 
described, 232. Gardens near, 235. Attacked unsuccessfully 
by Charles V., 239. French attack, 244. Attack by the 
Americans, 246. Treaty of James II. with, ib. Corsairs of, 
ib. Cruel conduct of the dey, 247. Expedition of Lord Ex- 
mouth, 248. Invaded by the French, 251. State of modern, 
253. Power of the dey, 254. Government of, 255. Revenue 
of, ib. Quarrel with Tunis, 256. Climate of, 272. Attempts 
at colonization, ib. Plan of colonies at, 272, 298. Rapacity 
of the dey, 303. Trade of, 305. Imports of, 306. 

Almamoun, science and learning patronised by, 107. Collects 
the works of the Greek philosophers to be translated into the 
language of Arabia, ib. Praised by Abulpharagius, ib. 

Almohades, sect of, 281. 

Amber, trade of Carthaginians in, 54, 57. 

Apollonia, ruins of, once a Grecian port, 123. Magnificent relics, 
124. 

Arabs, discoveries in science by, 109. Habits of those in the 
desert, 159. Resemble the Scottish Highlanders, 176. Curi* 
ous village of near the Atlas range, 177, 

Arar, wells excavated near, 161. 

Aristippus, doctrines of, 97. 



332 INDEX. 

Arzillah, the Julia Traducta of the Romans, account of, 289. 
Asia, emigrants from to Northern Africa, 23. 
Atlantic, extent of navigation by the Carthaginians, 59. Opin 

icns of various authors, by some of whom it is maintained they 

discovered the New World, ib. 
Atlas, Little, extent of, 313. Iron mines in, 279. Volcanic rocks, 

315. 

Atlas, Mount, range and extent of, 21, 277. Geological forma 
tion of not yet minutely examined, 310. Organic remains, ib. 

Augustin, St., character of, 101. Made bishop of Hippo Regius, 
the modern Bona, 102. Defends it against Genseric and the 
Vandals, ib. His numerous writings, genius, theological opin- 
ions, and death, 102, 103. 

Augustus Caesar, Carthage renewed under the direction of, 66. 

B. 

Barbarossa, two brothers of this name, Horuc and Hayradin, 
197. Become formidable pirates, ib. Horuc defeated and 
slain, 198. Hayradin acknowledges the Grand Seignior, and 
prepares to attack Tunis, 199. Provokes the resentment of 
Charles V., who makes preparations for war, 200. Tunis falls 
into the hands of the Spaniards, 201. Hayradin is defeated 
and flees to Bona, 202. Fights under the banners of Francis 
I. in Italy, 203. 

Barbary States, contrast between their ancient and present con- 
dition, 17. Ancient manners of the inhabitants, 18. Remains 
of former magnificence, ib. Revolutions sudden and entire, 
19. Countries comprehended in, 20. Division of, according 
to Herodotus, ib. Origin of the term, 22. Monuments which 
denote an Eastern people, 24. Inroad of Arabs, 91.- Religion 
and learning of, 93. Christianity introduced, 97, 98. Decay 
of Christianity, 104-107. Libraries, 108-1 10. Education, 111. 
Zoology, 319. Metals, ib. Birds, 324. 

Barca, desert of, 20. Description of district and town, 140. 
More ancient than the Greek colonies, ib. Supposed to have 
been founded by the brother of Dido, but built by the brothers 
of Arcesilaus, king of Cyrene, ib. 

Bedouins, description of, 176. 

Belisarius, Roman army led by, 81. Triumph of, 84. 
Bengazi, description of, 146. Market at, 300. 
Bengervvad, Cape of, tower near, 158. 

Blake, Admiral, gallant and successful attack on Tunis by, 183. 

Bomba, Gulf of, 115. 

Bon, Cape, country in the vicinity of, 223. 
Bona, description of, 258. The ancient Hippo Regius, 102. 
Bonifacius, Vandals invited by, 73. Death of, 75 
Braiga, account of, 155. 



INDEX. 



333 



Britain, tin-mines of, 54. Early intercourse of Carthaginians 

with, 54, 56. Southern coasts visited, 56. 
Bujeya, notice of, 260. 
Byzacium, towns in, 225. 

C. 

Cahina, Queen, Moors headed by, 88. 
Camels first naturalized in Barbary, 91. 

Carthage, foundation of, 24. Ambitious views of, 27. Extent 
of territory, ib. Tribes subject to or in alliance with, 29. 
First attempt on Sicilv and Sardinia, 30. Besieged, 32. Fall 
of, 38, 62, 76. Hatred of Cato, 37. Constitution of, 46. Kings 
of, 50. Trade of, 51. Intercourse with Spain, 53. Naviga- 
tion of, 59. Literature of, 60. Wealth and civilization of the 
inhabitants, 61. 

Carthage, New, description of, 67. Remains in the neighbour- 
hood, 218. Account of by Gibbon, 219. Description of by 
Chateaubriand, 221. 

Ceuta, account of, 289. 

Charax, ruins of, 158. 

Charles V., expedition against Tunis by, 200. His immense 
preparations and complete success, 201, 202. His attack on 
Algiers and subsequent disasters, 239, 243. 

Cinyphus, bridge across the, 166. 

Clybea, the Kalibia of the Latins, 223. 

Constantina, account of, 259. 

Corsica, chief exports of, 53. 

Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, 100. His great learning and tal- 
ents, ib. Value of his works, ib. Is persecuted by the Em- 
peror Valerian, and put to death, ib. 

Cyrene, history of, 120. Government, 121. Situation, 126. 
Tombs, 127, 131. Remains of theatre, 129, 130. Fiction of 
petrified village near, 133. Fountain at, 137. Geological 
structure of the mountains, 311. 

D. 

Delia Cella, opinion of as to the salt-marshes, 164. 
Derna, description of, 117, 119. 
Donatists, persecution of, 73. 

E. 

Edrisi, description of Carthage by, 220. 
Elba, iron mines of, 53. 
El effah, poisonous snake, 320. 
Elissa, or Dido, story of, 25. 
Eudoxia, wife of Hunneric, 79. 



334 INDEX. 

Euphorbium, juice of, 327. 

Exmouth, Lord, attack of on Algiers, 248. 

F. 

Fatimites, rise of the, 91. Promote learning, 107. Extent ot 

royal library at Kairwan and Alexandria, 108. 
Festus Avienus, poem of, 55. 
Fetichism, origin of, 94. 

Fez, original country of the Moors, 66. Climate and soil of, 

278. City of, 294. 
Fezzan, situation of, 188. Climate of, ib. Population, 189. 

Commerce of, ib. 
Firmus, usurpation of, 69. 
France, occupation of Algiers by, 274. 

G. 

Gabes, population of, 227. 

Gelimer, usurpation of, 80. Surrenders to the Romans, 83. 
Genoa, ancient treaty with Barbary in the archives of, 300. 
Genseric, conduct of, 73. Destroys Carthage, 76. Persecute* 

Christians, 77. Invades Italy, 78. Death, 80. 
Ghimines, remains of forts at, 154. 
Ghurba, notice of, 223. 
Gildo, history of, 71. 
Gilma, site of, 228. 
Giraff, salt marsh or lake at, 161. 
Gorbata, salt-water marsh near, 228. 

H. 

Hadjoute, plain of, 264. 

Hajjis, attack of freebooters on, 116. 

Hamet the Great, cruelty and treachery of, 186. 

Hamilco, voyage of to the islands of Britain, 54. 

Hammamet, account of, 223. Mausoleum near, ib. 

Hamza, castle of, 261. 

Hannibal, character of, 33. Recalled, 36. Defeated at Zama, ib. 

Hanno, expedition of, 57. 
Hassan, defeat of, 88. 

Hassan, dynasty of, first ascended the throne of Morocco, 282. 
Hassan Aga, conduct of, 238. 
Heirie, desert-camel, 323. 
Heraclian, rebellion of, 72. 

Herodotus, account of merchants of Carthage by, 61. 
Hesperides, gardens of, 150. 

Hiero, king of Syracuse, Carthaginians interpose in behalf of, 
32. 

Homer, fine tribute to the genius of, 38. 



INDEX. 



335 



I. 

Innane, encampments of, 261. 

J. 

Jarbas, rebellion of, 40. 
Jemme, ruins of, 227. 
Jerba, island of, 226. 

Jol, or Julia Caesarea, description of, 267. 
^ Joshua, son of Nun, described as a robber, 23. 
Juba, crown of Numidia given to, 41. 
Juba (the younger), character of, 42, 96. 

Jugurtha, history of, 39. Compels Romans to pass under the 
Yoke, 40. 

Julia Traducta, modern Arzillah, 290. 
Jurjura, Mount, notice of, 261. 

Justinian, last contest between Rome and Carthage under, 81. 
State of the country in the time of, 85. 

K. 

Kairwan, foundation of, 87. Mosque at, 227. 
Keff, remains of art found at, 224. 

L. 

La Cala, settlement of, long possessed by the French, 258. 

Coral fishery at, 259. 
Lactantius, Works of, 101. Called the Christian Cicero, ib. 

Was tutor to a son of Constantine, ib. 
Larache, or El Haratch, account of, 290. 
Lebida, ruins of, examined by Captain Smyth, 166. 
Leo, Pope, armament fitted out by for the redemption of Chris 

tian captives, 80. 
Leo Africanus, opinion of as to the term Barbary, 22; and as to 

Mesurata, 165. 
Lipara, famous for the production of resin, 53. 
Louis IX., descent on Tunis by, 195. Sufferings of his army, 

196. His sickness and death, 197. 
Lyon, Captain, account of the serpent-eaters by, 190. 

M. 

f Madeira, mention of by Diodorus, 58. 
Mago, house of, 47, 49. Works of. 60. 
Mahedia, remarks on, 225. 
Mahiriga, remains at, 157. 
Malta, beautiful cloths made at, 53. 
Man6el, Sir R., expedition of against Algiers, 240. 
Marabut Sidi, ruin of, 141. 



336 



INDEX. 



Marcius, repulsed by Carthaginians, 37. 

Marius, seen at ruins of Carthage, 42. 

Marjorian, proposed invasion of Carthage by, 79. 

Marseilles, Greek colony at, 54. 

Masinissa unites with Scipio against Carthage, 34. 

Matafuz, Cape, geological structure of, 315. 

Mauritania, division into two sections, 44. 

Medinet Sultan, outline of fortifications at, 158. Once an im- 
portant military station, ib. Remains of ancient town, 159. 

Mediterranean, encroachments of on the shores of N. Africa, 124 

Meheduma, or Mamora, town in a neglected state, 290. Mag 
nificent plain in the vicinity of, ib. 

Mehlla, notice of, 287. 

Mequinez, description of, 296. One of the capitals of Morocco, 
ib. Contains a splendid palace, ib. Manners of inhabitants 
mild and courteous, ib. 

Merge, plain of, 140, 142. 

Mesurata, account of, 163, 165. 

Metijah, plain of described, 264 

Mileu, the Milevum of the ancients, description of, 260. 

Mogadore, description of, 292. ImDorts at, 307. Method of 
keeping accounts at, ib. 

Moors, civilization in Northern Africa destroyed by, 85. Con- 
quered by the Moslem, 88. Character of modern, 212. Des- 
titute of taste, 211. 

Morabeth, sect of, called also Almoravides, 281. Fury of their 
invasions, ib. Their objects not less political than religious, 
ib. Superseded by the Almohades, ib. 

Morocco, extent of empire, 276. Climate, 277, 293. Jews, 279, 
286. Population, 280. History of the empire, ib. Variety 
of tribes, 282. Government, 283. Manners of, 284. Domes- 
tic customs, 285. Religion, 286. Revenue, 287. Description 
of the city, 293. 

Mostagan, gardens near, 267. 

Muktar, trade in sulphur at, 157. 

Muley Hassan deposed, 199. Restored, 203. 

Mustapha Pacha, aqueduct of, 271. The style of architecture 
peculiar, ib. 

N. 

Nabal, notice of, 223. 

Naples, vessels belonging to, employed in fishery at Bona, 249. 

Dey of Algiers retires to, 252. 
Narborough, Sir John, attacks Tripoli, 186. 

O. 

Omrniades, dynasty of expelled from the throne of Spain, 281. 
Oran, town of, 264. Described by M. Rozet, ib. Possession 



INDEX. 



337 



long contested by Spaniards and Moors, ib. Occupies two 
platforms, ib. Inhabitants tied from French, 266. 
O'Reilly, expedition of against Algiers, 244. 

P. 

Pentapolis, origin of the name, 320. 

Persians land in Africa, and use their ships for houses, 23. 
Phoenicians, colonies founded by on the coasts of Africa and 
Spain, 24. 

Pianura, or plain near Tripoli, description of, 177. Bears luxu- 
riant crops, and is sometimes like a sea of sand shifting from 
place to place, ib. 

Placidia, her influence in the government of the West, 73. 

Pliny, opinion of as to the course of the Nile and Niger, 96. 

Polybius, remark of, 27. Singular fact mentioned by, 46. 

Pompey defeats Jarbas, a sheik of Numidia, 40. Conflict in 
Barbary between Caesar and, 42. 

Procopius, anecdote recorded by, 23. 

Psylli, or serpent-eaters, account of, 190. 

Ptolemeta, Ptolemais of ancient writers and Dolmeita of the 
Arabs, description of, 141. Great strength of walls, 142. 
Style of architecture at, 144. Magnificent dormitory or mau- 
soleum, ib. 

Ptolemy, son of Juba, history of, 43. 

Q. 

Queen Cahina, her pretensions and extravagance, 88. Her 
death, ib. 

Questions decided by Carthaginian people when kings and sen- 
ate could not agree, 48. 

R. 

Rabat, situation of, 291. Remains of castle near, ib. 
Regulus, Carthage besieged by, 32. Patriotism of, ib. 
Romans, mercenary conduct of, 68. 
Roman towns, vestiges of, 263. 
Rozet, M., his work on Algiers, 309. 

S. 

Sachrin, situation of, 156. 

Saguntum, taking of by Hannibal occasioned the second Punic 
war, 33. 

Sahara, extent of, 22. Tribes in vicinity of, 262. Conjectures 

as to the origin of, 311, 315. 
Sallee, description of, 291. 
Sallecto, remains of castle at, 226. 

29 



338 



INDEX. 



Saracens, invasion by, 86. 
Sardinia, first attempt of Carthaginians on, 30. 
Scandinavia, amber plentiful at, 56. 
Schella, site of, 291. 

Science introduced into Africa, 103, 108. Decay of, 112. 
Scilly Islands, mentioned by Festus Avienus, 55. No traces 

of "the mines to be found on, 57. 
Scipio invades Africa, 34. 
Scipio Emilianus destroys Carthage, 38. 
Selim II., Moorish dynasty ended by, 204. 
Sert, supposed site of, 161. 
Sfaitla, splendid ruins near, 228. 
Sicily, first attempt of Carthaginians on, 30. 
Siwah, site of the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 189. 
Sophonisba, romantic tale of, 35. 

Spain, mines of enabled Carthaginians to pay armies, &c, 33. 

Intercourse of Carthaginians with, 53. Expedition of against 

Algiers, 242. 
Stilicho, his wisdom and bravery, 71. 
SufFetes, Carthaginian rulers, 50. Their duties, ib. 
Susa, notice of, 225, 227. 
Syracuse, Carthaginian traders settled at, 53. 
Syrtis, Greater, soil in the neighbourhood of, 156. 

T. 

Tabilba, remains of castle at, 155. 
Tacfarinas, rebellion of, 43. 
Tagiura, country around, 169. 
Tangier, notice of, 289. 
Tefessad, notice of, 268. 
Terodant, account of, 295. 
Tetuan, situation of, 288. 

Teuchira, description of, 145. Ruins of Christian churches at, 
146. 

Tezzoute, ruins near, 260. 
Theodosius sent to repel the Moors, 70. 

Tin, sought by the Carthaginians in Britain, Spain, and GauL 

54, 57. 
Titteri, rock of, 261. 

Tlemsan, towns in the province of, 262. Town of, ib. 

Tripoli, besieged by tribes of the desert, 69. Limits of the pa- 
chalic, 153. Origin of the name, 170. Triumphal arch. 173. 
Administration of justice, 179. Visit of an English lady to 
the court of, 180. Conquered by Charles V., 383. Principal 
officers of state, 187. Exports, 301. Imports, ib. 

Tripolines, character of, 171. Manners, 175-192. Houses of, 
178. 



INDEX. 



339 



Tubersoke, form of, 225. 
Tuburbo, notice of, 224. 

Tunis, Carthaginians repair to, 26. Extent of the pachalic, J 94. 
Government, ib. Expedition of Charles V. against, 200. End 
of the Moorish dynasty at, 204. First dey elected, ib. First 
monarch, ib. Authority of the bey, 205. Attacked by Admi- 
ral Blake, 206. Situation, 207. Climate, 208. Present con- 
dition, 208-216. Superstition of inhabitants, 209. Singular 
custom at, 211. Anecdotes of the late bey, 213, 216. Popu- 
lation, 214. Revenue, 215. Aqueduct near, 218. Account 
of small towns in the pachalic of, 223. Quarrel between Al- 
giers and, 256. Commerce, 302. Cause of the decline of 
trade, 303. Method of keeping accounts, 305. Intercourse 
with England, 304. 

Tyre, affinity to Carthage, 26. 

U. 

Utica, site of can no longer be determined, 222. 

V. 

Valentinian, conduct of, 69. 

Vandals first appear in Northern Africa, 73. 

Velez, or Belis, notice of, 287. 

Vienna, determination of the European powers at the Congress 
of, 248. 

W. 

Wady Khahan, 166. 

X. 

Ximenes, Cardinal, advice of to the king of Spain, 243. 
Z. 

ZafTran, description of by Delia Cella, 159. 

Zama, battle of, 36. 

Zeirites, rise of, 91. 

Zeliten, description of, 165. 

Zeugitania, cape in the vicinity of, 222. 

Zowan, remains of the grand aqueduct near, 218. 

Zoology, 319. 



THE END. 



AFRICA COMPLETED, 

In Four Volumes, of which any one may he had separately. 



The Proprietors of this Library have much satisfaction 
in announcing to the public the completion of that part of 
their plan which comprehends the History, the Antiquities, 
the Geography, the Statistics, and Natural Productions of 
the African Continent. 

Four volumes have now appeared, illustrative of those 
interesting subjects, and devoted to particular sections of 
that quarter of the globe. The first of these, entitled Nar- 
rative of Discovery and Adventure in Africa, not only 
describes the natural features of that continent, and the so- 
cial condition of its people, but also exhibits a view of what- 
ever is most interesting in the researches and observations 
of those travellers who have sought to explore its interior, 
from the times of the Greeks and Romans down to the re- 
cent expeditions of Park, Clapperton, and Lander ; thus 
presenting, within a narrow compass, all that is known of 
those immense deserts which have hitherto been a blank in 
the geography of the world. 

The second volume, View of Ancient and Modern 
Egypt, has for its object to lay before the reader every thing 
which has been ascertained respecting that wonderful coun- 
try from the days of the Pharaohs down to our own ; mark- 
ing the progress of the human race in civilization and learn- 
ing, and more especially the beginnings of society at the ear- 
liest period to which the writings of uninspired authors 
carry back the mind of the contemplative student. This 
narrative displays the genius and astonishing acquirements 
of the old Egyptians, chiefly through the medium of those 
great works of architecture, statuary, and sculpture, which 
are still to be found on the banks of the Nile. Pains have 
also been taken to explain the labours of Young, Champol- 
lion, and other learned men at home and abroad, who, since 



342 



AFRICA COMPLETED. 



the beginning of the present century, have contributed not a 
little to throw light on the remote ages which preceded the 
Persian Conquest, hitherto consigned to mysticism and fable. 
Equal care has been taken with the history of Modern Egypt, 
the main facts being derived from the communications of 
such writers as had dwelt some time in the country, and who 
thereby enjoyed an opportunity, not only of recording the 
principal events which have taken place under the govern- 
ment of Mohammed Ali, but also of comparing the actual 
condition of the inhabitants with the barbarism from which 
they have gradually emerged. 

Nubia and Abyssinia constitute the subject of the third 
volume, regions than which none could possibly be more in- 
teresting to the antiquary and the scholar. They w T ere uni- 
versally regarded by the poets and philosophers of Greece, 
as the cradle of those arts which at a later period covered 
the kingdom of the Pharaohs with so many splendid monu- 
ments, as well as of those religious rites which, after being 
slightly modified by the priests of Thebes, were adopted by 
the ancestors of Homer and Virgil as the basis of their my- 
thology. In tracing the connexion of the primitive people 
who dwelt on theJUpper Nile with the inhabitants of Arabia 
and the remoter East, the author has availed himself of the 
best information that could be procured from continental au- 
thors, not less than from the volumes of our own country- 
men who have ascended above the Second Cataract. The 
late expedition of Ishmael Pacha into Sennaar, and the oth- 
er districts watered by the Blue and White rivers, has ad- 
ded greatly to our topographical knowledge of that portion 
of Africa, one of the least frequented by Europeans. 
Among the interesting facts fully established by recent trav- 
ellers into Ethiopia, none is more worthy of notice than the 
circumstance that the Christian religion, received about fif- 
teen hundred years ago, continues to be professed by a great 
majority of the people. Of the literature of the same an- 
cient nation, so far as the relics of it can be collected from 
their chronicles and books of devotion, a suitable account 
has been given. But the reader will be mainly surprised at 
the extent and magnificence of the architectural remains of 
Nubia, which in some instances have been found to rival, and 
in others even to surpass, the more celebrated buildings of 
Egypt. It will no longer be denied by any one, that the pat- 



AFRICA COMPLETED. 



343 



tern or type of those stupendous erections which continue 
to excite the admiration of the tourist, at Karnac, Luxor, 
and Ghizeh, may be detected in the numerous monuments 
still visible between the site of the famed Meroe and the 
Falls of Es Souan. 

The fourth volume, entitled, The History and Present 
Condition of the Barbary States, has for its object an 
historical elucidation of those remarkable provinces which 
stretch along the southern shores of the Mediterranean, 
from the period when they were first colonized by the Phoeni- 
cians down to our own times. In this retrospect are exhib- 
ited the rise of the Carthaginians — their progress in com- 
merce, navigation, and agriculture — their struggle with the 
Romans for universal dominion — and also their misfortunes, 
defeats, and final subjugation. A view is likewise given of 
the establishment of the Christian religion in Northern Afri- 
ca — the character of the more distinguished divines, their 
doctrines and usages, till the light of the primitive faith was 
obscured by the ascendency of the Vandals. The annals of 
Modern Barbary bring the reader acquainted with the rela- 
tions which so long subsisted between her rulers and the 
maritime states of Europe, and also with the origin of the 
several wars which from time to time were waged against 
the pirates of Sallee, Tunis, and Algiers, by the Germans, 
French, and English. The trade, manufactures, and agri- 
cultural resources of the whole coast, from Cyrenaicato Mo- 
rocco, are illustrated by a reference to the latest authorities, 
more especially those writers who have visited the several 
regencies since the bombardment conducted by Lord Ex- 
mouth, and the in^ion of- General Bourmont. 

Such is a general "outline of the volumes devoted to the 
illustration of Africa — a portion of the globe the interest of 
which is every day increasing in the eyes of Europeans. To 
point out the peculiar advantages of this part of their scheme 
appears to the Publishers allooether superfluous; for, after 
the delineation just given, no additional evidence can be ne- 
cessary to satisfy the intelligent reader, that he is hereby- 
provided with a complete and connected view of African 
history, geography, literature, and natural science. 

The completion of this part of their undertaking will, the 
Proprietors hope, be regarded as an earnest of their inten- 
tions with respect to all the other sections of their Library, 



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